AN
ANGLO-SAXON READER
EDITTED, WITH NOTES, A COMPLETE GLOSSARY,
A CHAPTER ON VERSIFICATION


AND


AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO SAXON GRAMMAR


by
James W. Bright, PhD.
professor of english philology at the Johns Hopkins
University


THIRD EDITION
REVISED AND AUGMENTED


OWL ICON


NEW YORK
HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY






Copyright 1891, 1894,

by

HENRY HOLT & CO.



PREFACE

This book is planned for an introductory course in Anglo-Saxon. The glossary has been constructed so as both to facilitate the use of a grammar and to reduce the necessity of grammatical notes. Cook's excellent translation of Siever's Grammar has made available for reference the best exposition of Ango-Saxon phonology and inflection. March's Grammar will assist the teacher in matters relating to syntax.

In the choice of texts by which the student is to be introduced to the language and the literature of Anglo-Saxon times, an editor is compelled, in view of the practical end, to suppress many considerations: there must be gradation that may contradict chronology, or dialectal relationship; there must be a degree of variety that may do violance to completeness. An adjustment in partial harmony with all reasonable requirements is as much as can be hoped for.

The West-Saxon dialect, though not exactly in the line of the subsequent developement of the language, is best yet adapted to the conditions of the beginner, for it possesses sufficient uniformity in the phonology and inflection, the grammars are based on it, and it embraces most of the literature. The style and the character of the literature also determine the easiest introduction to be through the later form of this dialect. The following texts have been selected and arranged in accordance with these views. The first

iii

iv PREFACE.

three extracts are intended to supply a sufficient basis for an elementary preparation that will fit the student to pass to the study of the Early West-Saxon dialect, and thereafter to read the literature in chronilogical order. Any slight admixture of dialectical forms will be easily understood by the use of Siever's Grammar.

Most of the selected texts, it will be observed, are such as have been employed, either wholly or in part, in other Anglo-Saxon readers. In the case of some of them, exclusion from an introductory course would be welcome to few teachers; in the case of others, the choice cannot be expected to please all. The selections which are now admitted for the first time will, it is hoped, serve an obvious purpose.

The text are given according to the best manuscript sources, sithout normalization, withot silent changes, and, for the most part, with but slight emmendations. the variant readings, in some case complete even for unessential details, are to give a wider view of the condition of the language and of the orthographic fashion of the scribes. the first, second, ninth, tenth, eleventh, and eighteenth selections are based on my own copies and collations of the manuscripts. For the Homily on St. Gregory Professor W.W.Skeat, of Cambridge, has collated the Cambridge MS. and Professor Arther Napier, of Oxford, has supplied the readings (given in full) of the next best MS., that of the Bodlein Library. The seventeenth and Nineteenth selections are according to the collations of Dr. Frank G. Hubbard, of the University of California. For the extracts from the Bede the recent edition by Miller has been used, and for the 'Wars of Alfred,' Plummer's edition of the Chronicles. The remaining texts have been taken from the publications of Thorpe, Sweet, Earle, and Morris.

PREFACE. v

Othographic variation (chiefly due to chronological differences in the texts) has made difficult a compact yet clear arrangement of the glossary; however, the varient forms in parentheses, the principle parts of the verbs, and the citations will be found, it is beleived, to mitigate the somewhat sparing use of cross-references. The etymmological hints conveyed either in the definitions or by the bracketed forms will suggest some of the fundamental principles of derivation, but they are especially meant to lead the student to consult the Etymological Dictionaries of Skeat and Kludge.

It is pleasant to aknowledge the special obligations incurred in the preparation of this book. The kind assistance, already mentioned, given by professor Skeat and Professor Napier is to be added to many personal kindnesses in the past; I also reguard it as a further pledge of their hearty interest in the cause of english studies in America. My thanks are due to Dr Frank G. Hubbard for the use of a sheaf of his first gleanings in the libraries of england, and to Professor James Morgan Hart, of Cornell University, for valuable suggestions always freely given. More than can be expressed in a brief aknowledgement is due to Professor George Lyman Kittredge, of Harvard University; He has read the entire work in proof, with the discrimination of a scholar, and with the helpfulness of a friend.

JAMES W. BRIGHT

Johns Hopkins University
December 1, 1891




NOTE TO THE THIRD EDITION

rule


in compliance with a persistant request made by teachers, this edition has been augmented by An Outline of Anglo-Saxon Grammar. This Outline is to be sufficient for a thorough elementary course. Moreover, it has been planned so as to direct the teacher to the more complete work of Sieveres, and it may serve perchance to give to the student an impulse toward subsequent study of the more technical aspects of the subject.

The favorable reception of this Reader has created welcome opportunities for the correction of misprints and for supplying omissions in the Glossary. I owe much to the exact observation of those teachers who have discovered and kindly reported many of these error and ommisions.

J.W.B.

May 1, 1894

CONTENTS
 page
An Outline of Anglo-Saxon Grammar ix
PART I.
I. From the Gospels: St. Mark, Chap. IV 1
II. Orpheus and Eurydice 5
III. Account of the Poet Cædmon 8
PART II.
IV. Cynwulf and Cyneheard 14
V. Wars of Alfred the Great 16
VI. Alfred's Preface to the Pastoral Care 26
VII. From the Pastoral Care 30
VIII. The Voyages of Othere and Wulfstan 38
IX. It is Better to Suffer an Injury than to Inflict One 45
X. Providence and Fate 48
XI. The Nature of God 59
XII. The Conversion of Edwin 62
PART III.
XIII. A Blickling Homily 67
XIV. Ælfric's Homily on St. John the Apostle 74
XV. Ælfric's Homily on St. Gregory the Great 86
XVI. Ælfric's Life of King Oswald 98
vii
viii
CONTENTS
page
XVII. Ælfric's Preface to Genesis 107
XVIII. The Legend of St. Andrew 113
XIX. The Harrowing of Hell 129
PART IV.
XX. Cædmon's Genesis: The Offering of Isaac 142
XXI. The Battle of Brunanburh 146
XXII. The Battle of Maldon 149
XXIII. The Wanderer 160
XXIV. The Pœnix 165
APPENDIX I. Lacantius de Ave Phoenice 189
NOTES 195
APPENDIX II. Anglo-Saxon Versification 229
GLOSSARY 241
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON
GRAMMAR.



INTRODUCTORY REMARK

1. The following outline of Angloe-Saxon Grammar is restricted to the West-Saxon Dialect, that form of the language which in the rein of Alfred the Great (871-901) became dominant for literary purposes and maintained that supremacy to the close of the Anglo-Saxon period. The changes whch took palce within the West-Saxon Dialect, though slight in respect of phonology and inflection, make it necessary to distinguish Early West-Saxon (EWS), the language of Alfred's time, from Late West-Saxon (LWS), the language of the following two and a half centuries, with &Aelig;lfric (died between 1020 and 1025) as the central literary figure. In this outline EWS is reguarded as the norm to which LWS is subordinated.

PHONOLOGY
ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION

2. The Anglo-Saxon alphabet, as here employed, has two characters (þ , ð) that are not emplyed in Modern English.

Note. &emdash; The MSS. Use a special character for w; for g; & (=and) and (= þat) are usual.

ix

x   
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.


VOWELS AND DIPTHONGS


 3.  An approximate pronunciation of the vowels is
indicated in the following table:
a as in German Mann.
the preceding sound lengthened.
æ like a in at, man.
the precedng sound lengthened.
e
 as in let, men.
the preceding sound lengthened, as in they.
i as in hit, sit, in.
the preceding sound lengthened, as in machine.
o as in German Gott.
the preceding sound lengthened, as in German so.
as in "not.
u as in full, put.
the preceding sound lengthened, as in rule.
y like the ü in German, hübsch, Brücke.
the preceding sound lengthened, as in german grün.
like ö in German schön.
These dipthongs (long and short) receive the stress upon the first element; the second element, being unaccented, is very much obscured in pronunciation. the sound of ea, a is approximately that of æ + a, + a (perhaps more æ + uh); otherwise the component parts of the dipthongs are to be pronounced as indicated above.

Note. - the dipthongs ie, e are peculiar to EWS, where they, however, begin to change into i, ; in LWS, the most usual representation is y, . (S. §§ 22, 31, 41, 97.)

PHONOLOGY
 xi
 4.  (a) The following consonants are pronounced as in modern english; b,d,l,m,n,p,r (trilled), t,w,x. The pronunciation of the remaining consonants requires special attention.

(b) c has always the sound of k (the use of the symbol k is exceptional). The sound of kw or qu is,
accordingly, represented by cw (or cu), as in cwn, cweþan, etc. and cs has the value of x.

Note. - this k-sound has a gutteral or a palatal quality (somewhat as in English cold and kin), according to it's pronunciation with gutteral or with palatal vowels.

(c) f has two values. (1) In the initial and final positions, in the combinations ff, fs, ft, and in the medial position (cf. the note below), it has the usual (voiceless) sound. (2) In the medial position between vowels and voiced consonants it has the sound of v; e.g., hlford, oferm sealfian, fre.

Note. - In compounds like -fyrhtan, of-lystan, etc. f is strictly not in the medial position, and has therefore it's usual sound.

(d) g has two values, (1) It almost always represents a voiced spirant, which is either gutteral, or palatal, (like the g in German sagen, or like y in English you), according to it's pronunciation with gutteral or with palatal vowels. (2) It is pronounced like g in english go only when doubled, as in frogga, frog; and in the combination ng, as in the English longer.

The combination cg (by origin a geminated g) may be pronounced as dg in English ridge.

(e) h is never silent; it is always to be pronounced as a voiceless spirant either gutteral (as in German ach), or palatal ( as in German ich) in quality, according to the sounds with which it is combined.

xii
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.


(f) s has, in all positions, the voiceless sound, except single s between vowels, which has the voiced sound (z); e.g. wesan, rsan, etc.

(g) ð and þ are used without distinction to denote the dental spirant, th in all positions, presumably, the voiceless spirant (as in English thin), except, (as in the case of f between vowels and voiced consonants, where the voiced spirant (as in English thine) is employed; e.g. ðor, cweðan, siððan, weorðan, etc. The voiced spirant may also be employed in the pronomial forms ð, ðæt, ðs, etc.

ACCENTUATION

5. In Anglo-Saxon words are accented according to the following rules:
 Rule 1. - Simple (uncompounded) words are accented on the first syllable, (the radical syllable); derivative and inflectional syllables are unaccented.
Thus, fder, dágas, léornunga, túnge, túngan, túngena,
swéotole, bérende, frmede, wúnode, séalfode.

Note. - there are no tests by which to determine the limits in prose of a secondary stress on derivative and inflectional syllables. In metrical usage a secondary stress may fall on the ptc. ending -ende; on the adj. and pron. endings -en, -er, -ig; on the patrynomic ending -ing; on the subst. endings -ung, -ing, -er; on the inflectional ending (gen.pl.) -ena; on the class-vowel in verbs of the second weak conjugation, etc. See the chapter on VERSIFICATION.

 Rule II  - Compound words constitute two classes, (1) substantive compounds, and (2) verbal compounds.

A substantive compound receives the chief stress upon the first syllable of it's first component. (cf. Rule 1); the accent of the second component is usually retained as a secondary stress.

A verbal compound is accented on the radical syllable of the verb; the prefix is therefore unaccented.

PHONOLOGY.
xiii

 Thus, (1) substantive compounds: góld-smìð, mnn-cnn, swð-md (adj.), éarfoð-lce (adv.), nd-gìet, nd-swàru, b-gng, b-spèll, fór-wéard (adj.), ín-gng, mís-dd, ón-gìnn, ór-èald, (adj.), t-wèard, (adj.), ýmb-hwrft.

 (2) Verbal compounds: -rsan, be-htan, for-ltan, ge-bíddan, fór-wéarðan, mis-fáran, ofer-swðian, to-wéorpan, wið-stndan, ymb-síttan.

  Note 1. - An important exception to Rule II is to be observed in the accentuation of substantive compounds with the prefixes ge-, be-, and -for; these prefixes are unaccented.; e.g. ge-bód, ge-brðor, ge-féoht, ge-wéald; be-bód, be-g, be-hát; for-gýtol, (adj.), for-wýrd. That, however, these prefixes were formerly accented in substantive compounds, according to the rule, is shown by gáfol, gmel, etc., in which the first element is ga-, the accented form of ge-; the accented form of be- is also left in words like b-gng, b-spèll, b-wìst, etc. and notice bot < *bht; by the side of the later be-ht; and fr-bèorht (adj.), fr-mìcel, fr-coð, show a survival of the accented form of for-.

  Note 2. - this difference in accentuation between substantive and verbal compounds (cf. English ábstract : abstráct;   présent : presént;   súbject : subjéct ) has (as, in part, seen above) resulted in a corresponding difference of form in certain prefixes:

nd-gìet, intellegence : on-gíetan, to understand.
nd-sc, resistance : on-sácan, to resist.
f-þùnca, grudge : of-þýncan, to displease.
b-gng, practice : be-gngan to practice.
ór-cnwe recognizable : -cnwan (adj.) to know.
ór-þnc device : -þncan to devise.
ð-gng escape : oð-gngan to escape.
wíðer-sc, hostility : wið-sácan to resist

PHONOLOGICAL CHANGES.
 6. By the operation of phonetic processes, the Anglo-Saxon system of vowels is made somewhat diversified and complicated. The most important of these processes affecting the radical vowels will now be briefly described.

xiv
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.


THE CHANGE OF a INTO æ.

  7.   The occurrence of the vowel a is very much restricted. In a closed syllable, and in an open syllable followed by e(i) in the next syllable, the vowel a is mostly modified to æ but a remains unchanged in an open syllable that is followed by a, o, or u in the next syllable. (S.§ 49 f.)
  Thus, dæg, dæges, dæge, ðæt, wæs, fægen, wæter; dagas, daga, dagum, faran, hafoc, wacol.

  Note. - It might be supposed that the i of endings in the second weak conjugation, and in the infinative ending ending -ian, would change a into æ in an open syllable; but this was originally , therefore words like laðian, manian, wanian, etc., constituted only an apparent exception to the rule.

THE CHANGE OF a INTO .

  8. Before a nasal consonant the vowel a is changed into . But there is no uniformity in the employment of for a. The predominant from in EWS is ; in LWS it is a. (S.§ 65.)
  Thus, nd, and; hnd, hand; lnd,land; mnig, manig; gngan, gangan; gesmnian, gesamnian.

  Note. - When the preceding n (<an) occurs before a voiceless spirant, f, ð, s, the nasal disappears, and, in compensation, the vowel is lengthened to . Under the same conditions, in and un become i and . (S.§§ 66,185).
  Thus, sfte (<*snfte), softly; tð (<*tnð), tooth; ðor (<*nðor), other; gs (<*gns, goose; sð (Goth. sinþs), a going; swð (Goth. swinþs), strong; mþ (Goth. munþs), mouth.

BREAKING.
 9.   Before r-consonant, l-consonant, h+consonant, and h final, the vowels æ (from a. 7), e, and i are "broken" into short dipthongs, æ becoming ea, and e, i becoming eo, io (S. §§ 77-84.)
PHONOLOGY.
xv


 (a) Thus, æ into ea: *hærd (for hard, 7) > heard, hard; *hælf > healf, half; wearð, pret.sg. of weorðan, to become; wealdan, to weild; beald, bold; feallan, to fall; heall, hall; eahta, eight; seah, pret.sg. of son, to see.
 (b) e into eo (io): weorðan, to become; eorðe, earth; heorte, heart; feorr, far; weorc, work.
  e into eo (io) before l+ consonant is restricted to l + c or h: meolcan, to milk; seolh, seal. Otherwise the e remains: helpan, to help; swelgan, to swallow; sweltan, to die.
  Before h + consonant, and h final: feohtan, to fight; teohhian, to arrange; feoh, cattle.
 (c) i into io (eo): stem *hirdio > *hiordi > > hierde (i-umlaut), herdsman. *liht (< lht) > lioht, leoht, light, not heavy; Piht, Pioht, Peoht, Pict. *betwh > betwih, betweoh, between.

 Note. - Breaking results from the combination of a palatal vowel (æ, e, i) and a gutteral consonant (r, l, h). In passing from the pronunciation of the vowel to that of the consonant, a glide-sound is produced which is a more or less definate gutteral vowel. This may be observed in pronouncing well as wæ-el; there as thæ-ar or the-ur; fire as fi-ur or fi-or. It is this glide-vowel that has supplied the second element of the short dipthongs.

PALATIZATION.

  10. The palatals g, c, and sc, in the initial position change a following æ into ea; (= Germanic into a; and e into ie ( i, y; see 3, note). (S.§ 75.)
 (a) Thus, æ into ea: *gæf (7) > geaf, gave; *gæt > geat, got; *cæf > ceaf, chaff; Lat. castra > *cæstra > ceaster, town; *scæl > sceal, shall; *scæft > sceaft, shaft; *scær > scear, sheared (pret.sg.).
  (b) into a: *gfon >, gave(pret.pl.); *gton > gaton, got (pret.pl.); Lat. cseus > *csi >

xvi
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO SAXON GRAMMAR.


*casi > cese (i-umlaut), cheese; *scp > scap, sheep; *scron > scaron, sheared (pret. pl.).
  (c) e into ie (i, y): *gefan > giefan, to give; *getan > gietan, to get; *sceran > scieran, to shear .

  Note 1. - Before all vowels except æ, (= Germanic ) and e initial g and c do not change the following vowel. (S.§ 76); but initial sca- and sco- frequently become scea-, sceo-, e.g. scand, sceand, scnd, scend, shame; pret. scn, scan, shone; Scottas, Sceottas, the Scots; Scop, Sceop, poet; scacan, sceancan, pret. scc, scoc, shake; pret. scp, scop, created.
  Note 2. - The palatal pronunciation medial c, cg, g, and followed by a, o, or u, is often indicated by the insertion of an e (sometimes of an i). This inserted e (i) represents a trace of an original formative i or j. (S.§206,6).
 Thus, sc(e)an ( <*scian S.< 45, 8; Goth. skjan), to seek; cw)cc(e)an (< *cwæcjan), to quake; mnig(e)o (< *manig; Goth.managei), Multitude; bycg(e)an (Goth. bugyan), to buy; scg(e)as, scg(e)a, secg(i)um), pf of scg (stem *sægjo), man;
Note 3. - The inserted letter observed in the preceding note marks with prominence the "glide" effect of palatals. This element in the proninciation leads to further variation in the written forms. Thus, for example, for ia (ja) The graphic substitutes may be ga, iga, igea; for ie they may be ge, ige: nrian, nrgan, nrigan, nrigean, to save; marker hr(i)g(e)as, hr(i)g(e)a, hr(i)gum, pl. of hre (stem. *hærho-), army; wundriende, wundrigende, wondering; winig(e)a, gen. pl. of wine (stem *wini-), friend;
Also, as a graphic substitute for final , some use is made of ig: b-spell, big-spell, parable; h, hig, pron.; s, sig (Opt.),be; and medial g is occasionally represented by igg: gað, iggaþ, small island. (S.§24, Note.)
Note 4. - It is also to be observed that initial *jæ, *jo become gea, geo (gio). Thus gar (< *jr; Goth. jr), year; geoc, gioc (<*joc; Goth. juk), yoke. in like manner initial *ju becomes geo, Gio, or is represented by iu(io). Thus geong, giong, iung (< *jung; Goth. juggs), young; go, go, u, o, (Goth, ju), formerly.. (S.§ 74)

GEMINATION BEFORE J.

11. A single consonant (except r) when preceded by a short vowel is geminated by a following j. The

PHONOLOGY.
 xvii


vowel is also umlauted (13), and the j itself disappears. (S.§ 228.)
Thus, cynn (stem *cunjo), kin; sllan (< *sæljan; Goth. saljan), to give; lcgan (< *lægjan; Goth. lagjan), to lay, hbban (* hæfjan; Goth. hafjan), to heave; scieppan,13(<*sceapjan, 10<*scæpjan; Goth. skapjan), to create; hleihhan (< *hleahjan,9< *hlæhjan; Goth. hlahjan,to laugh.
But r is not geminated: hre (stem *hærjo; Goth. harjis), army; nrian,10 Note 3 (< *nærjan; Goth. nasjan), to save.

Note 1.- It will be noticed that geminated f and g become bb and cg respectively.
Note 2.- On the other hand, when the radical vowel or radical syllable is long, this formative j, first becoming i (S.§ 45,8), has not caused gemination of the preceding consonant.
Thus, sc(e)an (< *scian), to seek; dman (< *dmian), to judge; sndan (< *sndian), to send.

FINAL DOUBLE CONSONANTS.

12. Double consonants (except cg at the end of a word are usually simplified. (S.§ 225.) Thus, mnn, mn,man; mnn, mn,men; eall, eal, all; cynn, cyn, kin; bdd, bd, bed; sibb, sib, peace; - But scg,man; hrycg,ridge; wcg,, wedge.

UMLAUT (i-UMLAUT).

13. The accented vowels (radical vowels) are palatalized by an i or j of the following syllable. This species of palatalization is called i-umlaut, or, briefly, umlaut. The i and j causing the umlaut were, for the most part, either changed into e or entirely lost in an early period of the language. (S.§§ 85-100.)
xviii
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.

The results of umlaut may be tabulated thus:
æ ( < a. 7) becomes . (Sometimes æ. S. § 89,   1, Note 1.)
( < a. 8) becomes .
( < Germanic ai) becomes .
( < Germanic ) remains .
o, become e, .
u, become y, .
ea, a
eo, o
io, o 		become ie, e; i, ; in LWS usually y, (3, Note).

(a) Thus, æ into : hre (< stem *hærjo), army; lcgan (< *lægjan), to lay; sllan (< *sællan), to give; mte (stem *mæti), meat.
(b) into : dat. sg. mn(n) (< *mnni), nom. (acc.) pl. mn(n) (< *mnniz),man; ðnce(e)an (< *ðncian),to think; wndan (< *wndian), to turn.
(c) and into : d (stem *dli; Goth. dails),portion; dlan (< *dlian; Goth. dailjan, to share; hlan (< hlian Goth. hailjan, to heal; dd (stem *ddi; Goth. -dds), deed; lce (stem *lcio; Goth. lkeis),leech.
*wndian), to turn.
(d) o, into e, : morgen (< *morgan), but mergen (< *morgin); Goth. maurgins), morrow; dat. sig. dehter (< *dohtri), daughter; dman (< *dmian), to judge; ft, tð, gs, dat. sg. and nom. (acc.) pl. of ft, foot, tð (8, Note), tooth, gs, goose.

Note. - The umlaut of o (short) is restricted by reason of the germanic law according to which o is changed to u before a following i or j. (S. § 45, 3.)

PHONOLOGY.
 xix


(e) u, into y, : cyning (< *cuning), king; cyme (stem *cumi), a coming; lyre (stem *luri), loss; gylden (< *guldin < gold. S.§ 93, Note), adj. golden; bycgan (Goth. bugjan), to buy; ls, ms, dat. sig. and nom (acc.) pl. of ms, mouse, ls, louse; cðian (< *cðian < *cunðian, 8, Note; Goth. kunþjan), to make known.
(f) ea, eo, io into ie (i, y), and a, o, o into e (, ):wielm, wylm (stem *wælmi > *wealmi, 9), a surging; eald, old, comp. ieldra, supl. ieldesta; hierde stem *hirdo > *heordio, 9), herdsman. feorr,far, fyrran, to remove; heran (< *harian; Goth. hausjan), to hear; gelefan (< *gelafian; Goth. galaubjan), to beleive; loht, light; lehtan, to illuminate; frend, fend, dat. sg. and nom. (acc.) pl. of frond ( frond), friend, fond (fond), foe;

u- o-UMLAUT.

14. In the accented syllable, and when followed by a single consonant, a may be changed onto ea, and e, i into eo, io, by the influence of u or o (a) in the following syllable. This process is called u- o-umlaut. It is, however, not uniformly operative in the West Saxon dialect. (S.§§ 103-109.)
Thus, eafora, heir; heafola, head; weorold, world; heofon, heaven; metod, meotod, Creator; seofon, seven; wita, wiota, wise man; tilian, tiolian (< *tilian), to endeavor; clipian, cliopian, cleopian, to cry out; medu, medo, meodo, mead; siodu, custom.
Intervening c and g prevent the operation of this umlaut; nacod, adj. naked; magu, mago, son; racu, narrative; sacu, strife; regol, rule; plega, play; sigor, victory.

xx
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.

PALATAL-UMLAUT.
15. in some instances, eo (io) which resulted from the breaking of e before h+consonant (9) becomes ie (i, y). This process presupposes the change of the gutteral h, which cause the breaking, into a palatal h, which then produces an effect agreeing with that of i-umlaut. (S.§ 101.)
Thus, reoht, rieht, riht, ryht, right; cneoht, cnieht, cniht, cnyht, boy; seox (x=hs), siex, six, syx, six.

Note 1.- In LWS ea, a before h, x, g, and c are sometimes changes into e, : sleh (for sleah) imp. sg. of san, to strike; seh (for seah) pret. sg. of son, to see; geneahhe, geneh(h)e, enough; nah, n, near; ðah, ðh, though; weaxan, wexan, to grow; bag, bg, ring; ac, c, also.
Note 2.- In LWS ea, a after the palatals g, c, and sc are also sometimes changed into e, (S. § 102): gef (for geaf) pret. sg. of giefan, to give; get (for geat) pret. sg. of gietan, to get; geat, get, gate; gar, gr, year; ongan, ongn, against; cealf, celf, calf; scap, scp, sheep.

LOSS OF MEDIAL g.

16. After a palatal vowel, g (palatal) often disappears before d and n, and, in compensation, the vowel is lengthened, (S.§ 214,3)
Thus bregdan, brdan pret.sg. brægd, brd, to brandish; pret. sg. sægde, sde, pp. gesægd, gesd, of scgan, to say; frignan, frnan, to inquire; mægden, mden, maiden; ðegen, ðn, servant; ðegnian ðnian, to serve; wægn, wn, wain.
The occasional disappearance of g (gutteral) after a gutteral vowel is therefore due to the influence of palatal forms: pret. pl. brdon, pp. brden (for brugdon, brogden) follow the pattern of bregdan, brdan, etc.


PHONOLOGY.
 xxi

Note.- The spirant quality of the medial g, which underlies this precess of disappearance, is further shown in the frequent change (especially in LWS) of final (and occasionally medial) g into h. This change is most frequent after a long gutteral vowel and after l and r, but ity occurs also under other conditions. Thus, bag (bah), ring; burg (burh), borough; earg (earh), cowardly; iergðu (ierhðu), cowardice; sorg (sorh), sorrow; flg (flh), lg (lh), slg (slh), pret. of flan, to flay, lan, to blame, slan, to slay.

LOSS OF MEDIAL h.

17. Medial h (not hh) preceded by a consonant and followed by an inflectional vowel disappears, and in compensation, the stem-vowel is lengthened. (S. § 218.)
Thus mearh, gen. mares, horse; feorh, gen. fores, life; seolh, gen. soles, seal.

CONTRACTION.

18. Intervocalic h disappears, and the vowels thus brought together are contracted, or the forst vowel absorbs the second. (S. §§ 110-119, 218, 222.)
Thus, feoh, gen. fos, property; eoh, gen. os, horse; pleoh, gen. plos, peril; hah, gen. has, and han, (< *hahan, high.

Note 1.- This disappearance of h also ocurrs (with variation) before inflexional syllables beginning with n and r; before the comparative ending in r, and in composition and derivation: hah acc. masc. hane (hanne, S § 222, Note 2), dat. fem. hare, comp. hera (herra); halc, high; plolc, perilous; na-lcan, to draw near.
Note 2.- Many contracted themes are due to the early loss of intervocalic h.
Thus ah+a(), o, u results in a: slan (Goth. slahan), to strike; ðwan (Goth. ðwahan), to wash; tar (< *tahur), tear.
eh+a(), o, u results in o (o): on (< *seh(w)an; the ending of these infinitives should perhaps be written -n), to see; gefon (< *gifehan), to rejoice; two (< *tweho, doubt.
,+a (), o, u results in o (o): ðon (< *ðenhan

xxii
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.


Goth. þeihan), to thrive; wron (< *wrhan), to cover; bot (< *bhat), boast;
A long vowel absorbs the following vowel: fn (< *fhan < *fhan, to seize; hn (< *hhan < *hnhan), to hang; ton (< tohan), to draw; flon (< flohan), to flee.

INFLUENCE OF w

19. The dipthongs eo, io produced by the breaking (9) or by the u-o-umlaut. (14) or e, i are sometimes labialized by a preceding w into u or o. (S.§§ 71, 72.)
Thus, weorðan (< *werðan, 9), to become, appears also in the form wurðan; weorðian, wurðian, to honor; weorpan, wurpan, to throw; weorold (14), worold, woruld, world; sweord, swurd, sword; wita, wiota (14), weota, wuta, wise man; widuwe, wioduwe (14), wuduwe, widow; betwih, betweoh (9), betwuh with disapperance of w, betuh, between.


INFLECTION: DECLENSION.
 xxiii


INFLECTION.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS.
THE o-DECLENSION. (S. §§ 235-250.)

20. The o-declension (which includes the stems in jo and -wo) represents the inflection of the greater number of the masculine and the nueter nouns.

Masculine o-Stems.

21. (a) Monosyllabic themes: stn, stone; dæg, day; weal(l), wall; mearh, horse.

Sing. N.A. stn dæg weal(l) (12) mearh
G. stnes dæges wealles mearhes (17)
D.I. stne dæge wealle mearhe
       
Plur. N.A. stnas dagas (7) weallas m
G. stna daga wealla mara
D.I. stnum dagum weallum marum


22. (b) Dissyllabic themes: ðel, property; ngel, angel; heofon, heaven; fugol, bird.

Sing. N.A. ðel ngel heafon fugol
G. ðles ngles heafones fugles
d.i. ðle ngle heafone fugle
       
Plur. N.A. ðlas nglas heafenas fuglas
G. ðla ngla heafena fugla
D.I. ðlum nglum heafenum fuglum


23. In the inflection of dissyllabic themes, when the radical syllable is long, the (short) middle vowel is

xxiv
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.


syncopated (ðles, ngles); when the radical syllable is short, the middle vowel is retained. (heofones).
(2) But certain of the themes in -el, -ol, -er, -or almost regularly do not retain the middle vowel after a short radical syllable (fugles; S. § 245).
(3) A middle vowel which is long (by position) is retained: wfels, wfelses, covering; ftels, ftelses, vessel; hngest, hngestes, stallion; færeld, færeldes, journey.

Note.- There is always more or less deviation from the normal forms in the matter of the loss and the retention of the middle vowel. The middle vowel tends to assume the form e before a following a, o, u, (heofones, but heofenas; S. § 129), but there is much of unregulated distribution of o and e as middle vowels.

NEUTER o-STEMS.

24. (a) Monosyllabic themes: gar,year; word, word; fæt, vessel; lim, limb; feoh, property.
S.N.A. gar word fæt lim feoh (fo)
G. gares wordes fætes limes fos (18)
D.I. gare worde fæte lime fo (18)
           
P.N.A. gar word fatu (7) limu, leomu (14)
G. gara worda fata lima, leoma
D.I. garum wordum fatum limum, leomum


25.- The case ending (u) of the nom. and acc. pl. disappears after a long radical syllable; after a short radical syllable it is retained: gar, word, but fatu, limu (liomu, leomu).

Note. - The case-ending u of the nom.acc.pl. is often weakened to o or a. Monosyllabic themes may also have prefixes: gebed, prayer; gefeohg, fight; gewrit, writing; bebod, command.

INFLECTION: DECLENSION.
 xxv


26. (b) Dissyllabic themes: hafod, head; neten (nten, animal; wpen, weapon; wæter, water.

S.N.A. hafod neten wpen wæter
G. hafdes netenes wpnes wæteres
D.I. hafde netene wpne wætere
 
P.N.A. haf(o)du netenu wpnu, -en wæter, -u
G. hafda netena wpna wætera
D.I. hafdum netenum wpnum wæterum


27. The middle vowel is generally syncopated after a long radical syllable (hafdes, wpnes); it is retained after a short radical syllable, (wæteres), and in some words in -en having a long radical syllable (netenes). The case-ending u (o, a) of the nom.acc.pl. generally remains after a long radical syllable (haf(o)do, netenu), and disappears when the radical syllable is short wæter.

Note.- Usage is not uniform in the treatment of either the middle vowel or the case-ending -u.


MASCULINE AND NUETER jo-STEMS.

28. Monosyllabic themes: Masculine, hierde, shepard; hre, army; hrycg, ridge. - Nueter, wte, punishment; cynn, kin.

S.N.A. hierde (13,f) hre (13, a) hrycg (12) wte cyn(n) (12)
G. hierdes hr(i)ges (10,3) hrycges wtes cynnes
D.I. hierde hr(i)ge hrycge wte cynne
 
P.N.A. hierdas hr(i)g(e)as hrycgas wtu cyn(n)
G. hierda hr(i)g(e)a hrycga wta cynna
D.I. hierdum hr(i)gum hrycgum wtum cynnum


29. Nouns in -jo (= io after a long radical syllable 11, Note 2) have umlaut of the radical vowel (if it be a vowel that can be affected by umlaut), and gemination

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AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.

of a single consonant (except r) before j when the radical vowel is short (11): stem *hrugjo- > hrycg, etc.

30. (b) Dissyllabic themes: Masculine, fen, evening; fiscere, fisher. - Neuter, wsten, waste.

S.N.A. fen fiscere wsten
G. fen(n)es fisceres wsten(n)es
D.I. fen(n)e fiscere wsten(n)e
 
P.N.A. fen(n)as fisceras wsten(n)u
G. fen(n)a fiscera wsten(n)a
D.I. fen(n)um fiscerum wsten(n)um

Note.- A medial geminated consonant is often simplified before an inflectional ending: fen(n)es, wsten(n)es, etc.

MASCULINE AND NUETER wo-STEMS.

31. Themes: Masculine, bearu, grove; ðow, servant, - Neuter, searu, device; cno(w), knee.

S.N.A. bearu, -o ðo(w) searu, -o cno(w)
G. bearwes ðowes searwes cnowes
D.I. bearwe ðowe searwe cnowe
 
P.N.A. bearwas ðowas searwu, -o cnow(u), cno
G. bearwa ðowa searwa cnowa
D.I. bearwum ðowum searwum cnowum


32. (1) After a short radical syllable the w of the stem has become final u (o) of the theme: stem *barwo- > *baru; gen. *barwes > bearwes (9); the broken vowel ea is transferred to the theme.
(2) The wo-stems are relatively few in number. Some of the more common ones are: masc. sn(w), snow; ðaw, custom; - masc. and neut. daw, dew; hlw hlw, mound; hr(w), hr(w), corpse; - neut. bealu, evil; mealu, meal; hlo(w), protection; tro(w), tree.

Note.- A parasitic vowel, u, o, or e is often developed before w: bear(u)we, bear(o)we; sear(u)we, sear(e)we; beal(o)wes, etc. (cf. 37, Note).

INFLECTION: DECLENSION.
 xxvii


THE a-DECLENSION. (S. §§ 251-260.)

33. All nouns of the a-declension (which includes the stems in -j and -w) are feminine.

-STEMS.

34. Themes: giefu, gift; lr, lore; frfor, consolation; firen, sin; costung, temptation.

S.N.A. giefu, -o lr frfor firen costung
G. giefe lre frfre firene costunga, -e
D.I. giefe lre frfre firene costunga, -e
A. giefe lre frfre firene costunga, -e
 
P.N.A. giefa, -e lra, -e frfra, -e firena, -e costunga, -e
G. giefa, ena lra, -ena frfra firena costunga
D.I. giefum lrum frfrum firenum costungum


35. The case-ending u of the nom.sg. is retained only in words like giefu (with short radical syllable). In the gen.pl. some use is made of the case-ending -ena, which is taken from the n-declension (44). Nouns in -ung have commonly the case-ending -a in the gen.dat.acc.sg. After a long radical syllable the middle vowel is syncopated (frfre); it is retained when the radical syllable is short (firene).

ja-STEMS.

36. Themes: wylf, she-wolf; sib(b), peace; byrðen, burden; hlignes, holiness.

S.N. wylf syb(b) (12) byrðen hlignes
G. wylfe sybbe byrðen(n)e hlignesse
D.I. wylfe sybbe byrðen(n)e hlignesse
A. wylfe sybbe byrðen(n)e hlignesse
 
P.N.A. wylfa, -e sybba, -e byrðen(n)a, -e hlignessa, -e
G. wylfa sybba byrðen(n)a hlignessa
D.I. wylfum sybbum byrðen(n)um hlignessum


xxviii
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON.

Some of the more common j-stems are: bn(n), wound; blðs, bliss, bliss; brycg, bridge; byrgen, tomb; cndel, candle; cg, edge; gemen, care; gyden, godess; hll, hell; hild, battle; lðs, liss, favor; milds, milts, mercy; sciell, scyll, shell; synn, sin; wynn, joy; ð, wave.

w-STEMS.

37. Themes: stw, place; beadu, battle; ls, pasture; md, meadow.

S.N. stw beadu ls md
G. stwe beadwe ls(w)e md(w)e
D.I. stwe beadwe ls(w)e md(w)e
A. stwe beadwe ls(w)e md(w)e (md)
 
P.N.A. stwa, -e beadwa, -e ls(w)a, -e md(w)a, -e
G. stwa beadwa ls(w)a md(w)a
D.I. stwum beadwum ls(w)um md(w)um


Here belong also hrow, repentance; trow, faithfulness; nearu, distress; the plurals frætwa, -e, geatwa, -e, getwa. -e, ornamants, arms; and a, water (< *ahu, 18, Note 2; Goth. ahwa), gen.sg. a (as, e), dat.sg. a (e, i), acc.sg. a; nom.acc.pl. a (an); dat.pl. aum (am). There is also a trace of this declension in the nom.acc.pl. cla, clo, dat.pl. clam (clm), claws.

Note. - A parasitic vowel, u, o, or e may be developed before w: bead(u)we, bead(o)we, near(o)we, geat(e)we, etc. (cf. 32, Note).

THE i-DECLENSION. (S. §§ 261-269.)

38. The i-declension includes nouns of all genders but it has been much affected by the adoption of case-endings of the o-declension.

INFLECTION: DECLENSION.
 xxix



MASCULINE AND NEUTER i-STEMS.

39. Themes: Masculine, hryre, fall; frondscipe, friendship; pl. dne, the Danes; fng, grasp; pl. ngle, the Angles. - Neuter, sife, sieve.

S.N.A. hryre frondscipe fng sife
G. hryres frondscipes fnges sifes
D.I. hryre frondscipe fnge sife
 
P.N.A. hryras Dne ngle sifu
G. hryra Dn(ge)a ngle sifa
D.I. hryrum Dnum nglum sifum

40. the original i of the stem has produced umlaut of the radical vowel, and survives as in the nom.acc.sg. when the radical syllable is short: *hruri > hryre. The proper case-ending of the nom.acc.pl.masc. is e (< i), but it has been almost totally superseded by -as of the o-declension, except in proper nouns like Dne, ngle, etc.

Note.- Traces of the original inflection of the plural are wine, friends; gen.pl.winigea; stde, places, etc. occurring by the side of the usual forms winas, gen. wina, st, etc. The permanent trace of the original declension is the umlaut of the radical vowel.


FEMININE i-STEMS.

41. Themes: dd, deed; cwn, woman; scyld, guilt.
S.N. dd cwn scyld
G. dde cwne scylde
D.I. dde cwne scylde
A. dd (-e) cwn (-e) scyld
 
P.N.A. dde (-a) cwne (-a) scylde (-a)
G. dda cwna scylda
D.I. ddum cwnum scyldum


42. The case endings acc.sg. -e nom.pl. -a are often employed; they are adopted from the a- declension.


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AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.


the nouns here represented have the radical syllable long; those with a short radical syllable have conformed to the a-declension.

THE u-DECLENSION. (S. §§ 270-275.)

43. Themes: Masculine, sunu, son; - Feminine, hnd, hand.

S.N.A. sunu, -o, -a hnd
G. suna hnda
D.I. suna, -u, -o hnda
 
P.N.A. suna, -u, -o hnda
P.N.A. suna hnda
P.N.A. sunum hndum


This declension has been reduced to comparatively few surviving forms, such as: masc. wudu (< wiodu, 19) gen.dat.sg. wuda; sidu ( siodu, 14), custom; acc.pl. siodo; medu (meodu, 14), mead, dat.sg. meodu, -o; feld, field, dat.sg.felda; ford, ford, dat.sg. forda; winter, winter, dat.sg. wintra; sumor, summer, dat.sg. sumera; = fem. duru, door, dat.sg. duru, -a; - neut. fela (feola, 14), much.

THE WEAK DECLENSION (n-DECLENSION). *S.§§ 276-278, 280.)

44. Themes: masc., bma, name; fem., tunge, tounge; neut., age, eye; masc., gefa, joy.

S.N. nma tunge age gefa
G.D.I. nman tungan agan gefan
A. nman tungan age gefan
P.N.A. nma tungan agan gefan
G. nmena tungena agena gefana
D.I. nmum tungum agum gefa(u)m


INFLECTION: DECLENSION.
 xxxi


45. The case-ending of the gen.pl. -ena (which may also occur and -ana, -ona, -una) is sometimes reduced to -na, or even to -a (in agreement with other declensions). -an often becomes -on.
gefa represents a small class of stems ending in a vowel, which is contracted with the case-endings. Other words of this form are: masc. fra, lord; lo, lion, gen. lon, etc.; two, doubt; ðra, threat; - fem. fl, arrow.
age and are, ear, almost exhaust the neuter nouns of this declension.

FEMININE ABSTRACT NOUNS IN -u, -o. (S. § 279.)

46. Themes: wlncu, pride; strngu (strmgðu, strngð), strength.

S.N. wlncu, -o strngu, -o strngðu, -o, strngð
wlnce, -u -o strnge, -u, -o strngðe; -u, -o,
P.N.A. wlnc(e)a, -u, -o strnge; -u, -o strngðe, -a; u, -o,
G. wlnc(e)a strnga strngða
D.I. wlncum strngum strngðum


47. These nouns represent primarily an original weak declension in (n) (e.g., brdu, brd = Goth. braidei; ei = ); and secondarily abstracts of the -declension in *-iðu, (Goth. -iða): strngðu < *strngiða. The -u of the nom.sg. has been obtained from the a-declension, and extended to other cases so as to produce often an uninflected singular. There is always more or less conformity to the a-declension, especially by nouns in *-iðu. (s. § 255, 3.)

xxxii
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO SAXON GRAMMAR.


MINOR DECLENSIONS.

THE r-DECLENSION

48. Themes (nouns of relationship): fæer, father; mdor, mother; brðor, brother; sweostor, sister; dohtor, daughter.
S.N.A. fæder mdor, -ur, -er brðor, -ur, -er
G. fæder, -(e)res mdor, (mder) brðor,
D.I. fæder mdwr, (13, d) brðer, (13, d)
 
P.N.A. fæd(e)ras mdru, -a brðor, -ðru
G. fæd(e)ra mdra brðra
D.I. fæd(e)rum mdrum brðrum

S.N.A. sweostor, -ur, er dohtor, ur, er
G. sweostor dohtor, (dehter)
D.I. sweostor dohtor, dehter, (13, d)
 
S.N.A. sweostor, -tru, tra dohtor, -tru, tra
G. sweostra dohtra
D.I. sweostrum dohtrum
The datives m, dehter (which are sometimes transferred into the genetive) exhibit umlaut of the radical vowel (mder <*mdri; dehter <*dohtri). sweostor also becomes swoster, swuster, (19), swyster.
here belong also the collective plurals gebrðor, bretheren, gesweostor, sisters.

THE nd-DECLENSION. (S. § 286.)

49. Themes: frond, friend; httend, enemy.

S.N.A. frond httend
G. frondes httendes
D.I. frend(13, f), fronde httende
 
P.N.A. frend, fronde /b> frondas httend, -das, -de
G. fronda httendra
D.I. frondum httendum


INFLECTION: DECLENSION.
 xxxiii


50. This declension comprises masculine nouns of agency derived from present particables. like frond are declined fond, foe; the collective plurals gefrend, friends; gefend, foes. Like httend are declined gend, owner; dmend, judge; htend, persecutor; fultum(i)end, helper; gddnd (pl gddnd), benefactor; healdend, keeper; hlend, nrgend, savior; wealdend, ruler; wgend, warrior; etc. the case-endings gen.sg. -es, dat.sg. -e, nom.pl. -as show conformity to the o-declension, and nom.pl. -e, gen.pl.-ra are in accordance with thw regular strong adjective inflection of present participles. (62).

THE os-DECLENSION (S.§§ 288-290.)

51. Themes: Neuter, lmb, lamb; cealf, calf; g, egg.
S.N.A. lmb cealf g
G. lmbes cealfes ges
D.I. lmbe cealfe ge
 
P.N.A. lmbru, lmber, lmb cealfru gru
G. lmbra cealfra gra
D.I. lmbrum cealfrum grum


52. The original stem-endings -or, er, (< -os, -es) also survive in themes like dgor, day; sigor, victory; hrðer, cattle; but these have adopted the o-declension, and often a change of gender. Sometimes -er is reduced to -e, as in sige (< *siger; Goth. sigis), victory; ge

xxxiv
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.


(Goth. agis), fear, and such words have generally become masculine and follow the i-declension. Otherwise the total loss of the stem-ending (as in the sing. of the paradigms) has resilten in a theme like sæl, hall (by the side of salor.

THE RADICAL CONSONANT DECLENSION. (S.§§ 281-284.)

53. Themes: Masculine, mnn, man; ft, foot; tð, tooth. - Feminine, bc, book; burg, borough.

S.N.A. mnn ft tð bc burg
G. mnnes ftes tðes bc, bce byr(i)g (13,f)
D.I. mn(n) (13,b) ft (13,d) tð bc byr(i)g
 
P.N.A. mn(n) ft tð bc byr(i)
G. mnna fta tða bca burga
D.I. mnnum ftum tðum bcum burgum


54. (1) A weak acc.sg. mnnan, and the pl. ftas, tdas sometimes occur. Other masculine forms of this declension survive in hæl (hæleð), hero pl. h&ealig;le, hæleð (by the side of hæleðas); mnað, month, pl. mnað (by the side of mn(e)ðas). There are also the neuter forms: scrd, garment, dat.sg. scrd; ealu, ale, gen.dat.sg. ealoð, -að.
(2) Like bc are also declined the feminines brc, breeches; pl. brc; gt, goat, pl. gt; gs, goose, pl. gs; ls, louse, pl. ls; ms, mouse, pl. ms; cs, cow, gen. c(e), c, cs; dat. c, pl.nom.acc. c(e), gen. c(n)a, cna, dat. cum, cm), - niht, night, preserves a trace of this declension in dat.sg., nom.acc.pl. niht (the adverbial gen. nihtes (70) is due to association with dæges); and mægeð, mæð, maid, in


INFLECTION: DECLENSION.
 xxxv


undergoing no change in the sing. and the nom.acc.pl -burg sometimes shows departure from this declension by the gen.dat.sg. burge, nom.acc.pl. burge, -a.


ADJECTIVES

DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES (S.§§ 291-304.)

55. Adjectives have a double inflection: (1) the Strong (or Indefinate), and (2) the Weak (or Definate) declension.
(1) The Strong declension os used whenever none of the conditions for the use of the Weak declension are present. It has some special case-endings, which are of pronomial origin: masc.neut.dat.sg. -um; masc.acc.sg. -ne; fem.gen.dat.sg. -re; masc.nom.acc.pl. -e; gen.pl. -ra; with these exceptions, this declension agrees with that of o- (jo-, wo-) stems for the masc. and neut., and with that of - (j-, w-) stems for the fem. forms. A few traces are all that is left to represent the declension of i- and u- stems. (59, 2, 3).
(2) The Weak declension is used when the adjective is preceded by a demonstrative (sometimes a posessive) pronoun; in direct address (vocative); and in poetry sometimes in place of the Strong declension. Moreover, the comparatives always follow this declension, and usually the superlatives; and all the ordinals (except rest, fyrmest, fyrest, fyrst, first; and ðer, second. 74, 7).
This declension agrees throughout with the n-declension of nouns (44), except that the gen.pl. often ends in -ra.

xxxvi
An OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.


STRONG DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES.
(a) o- (-) stems.

56. Themes: hræ, rapid; gd, good.

MASCULINE NEUTER FEMENINE
S.N. hræd hræd hradu, -o
G. hrædes hrædes hrædre (7)
D. hrædum (7) hrædum hrædre
A. hrædne hræd hræde
I. hræde hræde
 
P.N.A. hræde hradu, -o; -e hrada, -e
G. hrædra hrædra hrædra
D.I. hradum hradum hradum

MASCULINE NEUTER FEMENINE
S.N. gd gd gd
G. gdes gdes gdre
D. gdum gdum gdre
A. gdne gd gde
I. gde gde
 
P.N.A. gde gd; -e gda, -e
G. gdra gdra gdra
D. gdum gdum gdum


Note.- The special case-endings, of pronomial origin (55 1), are marked by the difference of type in the paradigm of hræd.
57. (1) In LWS the nom.acc.pl.neut generally ends in -e (in conformity to the masc.); the cases in -um sometimes appear in -on, -an; and -re, -ra may become -ere, era.

Note.- The nom.acc.pl.masc. fawe, few and manege, many, because of association with the noun fela, much (which is also used as an adjective), frequently become fawa and manega; so too ealla for ealle, all, is found.

(2) Adjectives in -h: hah, high, fem. hah, ha; gen. has (18), LWS also hages; fem.gen.dat.

INFLECTION: DECLENSION.
 xxxvii


hare, hahre, harre; dat. haum, ham, hagum; acc.masc. hanne, hane, hahne, etc. - hroh, rough; dat.hroum; acc.masc. hrone; gen.pl. hrora; etc. -rg, rough, gen. rwes, rges; acc.masc rhne; etc. - ðworh,transverse, gen. ðwores; etc. - wh, wrong, gen. w, wges; etc.
(3) In the declension of dissyllabic themes the same principles generally prevail in the retention and the loss of the middle vowels which have been observed on the corresponding declensions of nouns.

(b) jo- (j-) and wo- (w-) STEMS.

58. Themes: jo- (j-) theme, grne, green; b>wo- (w-) theme, gearu, ready.

MASCULINE NEUTER FEMENINE
S.N. grne grne grnu, -o
G. grnes grnes grnre
D. grnum grnum grnre
A. grnne grne grne
I. grne grne
 
P.N.A. grne grnu, -o; -e grna, -e
G. grnra grnra grnra
D.I. grnum grnum grnum


MASCULINE NEUTER FEMENINE
S.N. gearu, -o gearu, -o gearu, -o
G. gearwes gear(o)re
D. gearwum gear(o)re
A. gearone gearu, -o gearwe
I. gearwe
 
P.N.A. gearwe gearu; -we gearwa, -e
G. gear(o)ra
D.I. gearwum


59. (1) fro (fro, froh, froh), free (stem *frijo-), gen.friges; dat. frigum; pl. frige, etc. has also

xxxviii
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.


contracted forms: dat. froum; gen.dat.fem. frore; acc.masc. frone; pl. fro; gen.frora, etc.

Note. - The wo-stems often exhibit a parasitic vowel before w; gear(o)wes, gear(e)wes, gear(u)we, etc. (cf.32, Note).

Adjective i-stems follow the declension of grne (jo-stem). Thus, bryce (stem *bruci; 13, e), fragile; gemyne, mindful; swice, deceitful.. - With long radical syllable: brce, useful; blðe, blithe; swte, sweet.

(3) Adjective u- stems have adopted either the o- or the jo-declension. Relics of the original declension are the forms: c(w)icu, c(w)ucu, (< cwiocu; 19 ), alive; and wlacu, tepid.

WEAK DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES.

60. Theme: gd, good.

MASCULINE NEUTER FEMENINE
S.N.V. gda gde gde
G. gdan gdan gdan
D.I. gdan gdan gdan
A. gdan gde gdan
 
all genders
P.N.V.A. gdan
G. gdena, -ra (55,2)
D.I. gdum


Note 1. - The gen.pl. sometimes ocurrs in -ana, -an (conforming to the other cases); of in -na, and -a (conforming to nouns). The case-ending -an sometimes appears as -on; and -um may become -an, -on.
Note 2. - Adjectives in h are contracted: hah, high; ha, han (18), etc. - ðworh, transverse: ðwora, -e, etc. wh, wrong: gen.pl. wna, etc.


INFLECTION: DECLENSION.
 xxxix


DECLENSION OF PARTICIPLES. (S.&$167;§ 305,306.)

61. Participles admit of the double inflection of adjectives. When the strong inflection is employed, the present participle follows the declension of jo-stems (58, grne); the past participles (of both Strong and Weak verbs) are declined like o-stems (56).

STRONG DECLENSION OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE.

62. Theme: Present Participle, singende, singing.

MASCULINE NEUTER FEMENINE
S.N. singende singende singendu, -o
G. singendes singendes singendre
D. singendum singendum singendre
A. singendne singende singende
I. singende singende
 
P.N.A. singende singendu, -o; -e singenda, -e
G. singendra singendra singendra
D.I. singendum singendum singendum


Note. - The acc.sg.masc. is often uninflected (having the ending -e instead of -ne). When a present participle is used as a noun of agency, it follows the declension of nd-stems (49, httend).


COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. (S.§§ 307-314.)

63. (1) An adjective forms it's Comparative in the ending -ra (< *-ira and *-ora - Goth. -iza and -oza); its Superlative in -est, or -ost (= Goth. -ist, -ost). THere may be umlaut of the radical vowel, but in most instances umlaut does not occur.
Thus, (a) with umlaut:

eald, old ieldra ieldest
aðe, easy eðra eðest



xl
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO SAXON GRAMMAR.


geong , young giengra giengest
grat, great gretra gretest
hah, high hehra (herra) heh(e)st
lng, long lngra lngest
sceort , short sciertra sciertest


(b) Without umlaut:
ceald , cold cealdra cealdost
earm , poor earmra earmost
heard , hard heardra heardost
hld , loud hldra hldost
lof, dear hlofra hlofost
rce, powerful rcra rcost
swð, strong swðra swðost
swift, swift swiftra swiftost


Note 1. - It is because comparatives follow the weak declension (55,2) that the masculine theme (in -a) is adopted as the theme of the comparative; superlatives admit of double inflection, therefore the strong theme is here employed (in -ist, -ost not -ista, -osta).
Note 2. - The ending -ost (which is often represented by -ust, -ast) is occasionally transferred to umlauted forms; and -est is often found with the unumlauted forms, particularly when these are inflected: hardesta, rcestan, etc.

64. Some few comparatives and superlatives have no positive, but are based on corresponding adverbs or prepositions:

( feorr, far) fierra fierrest
( nah, near ) narra nehst
( r, earlier ) rra rest
( fore, before) furðra fyr(e)st


INFLECTION: DECLENSION.
 xli


65. A trace of superlatives in -m survives in forma, the first, and hindema, the hindmost. But to this -m the regular ending -est has been joined; the result is a (double) superlative ending -mest (-mæst; = Goth. -m-ist-), which appears in the following list. These adjectives are, in the greater number of instances, also based on adverbs or prepositions, and usually have the comparative in -erra.

( sð, late ) sðra sðemest, sðest
( læt, late ) lætra lætemest, læest
( inne, within ) inn(er)ra innemest
( te, without ) t(er)ra, trra test, temest
( ufan, above ) uferra, yfer(r)a yf(e)mest, ufemest
( niðan, below ) niðerra niðemest
( fore, before ) furðra fyrmest; forma
( æfter, after ) æfterra æftemest
( mid(d), mid ) mid(e)mest
( norð, northward ) norð(er)ra, nyrðra norðmest
( sð, southward ) sð(er)ra, sðra sðmest,
( ast, eastward ) ast(er)ra astmest,
( west, westward ) ( west(er)ra ) westmest


66. In the following list the root of the comparative and superlative differs from that of the positive.

gd, good bt(e)ra, bttra bt(e)st
yfel, evil wiersa wierrest, wierst
micel, great mra, mrra mst
ltel(lt), little lssa ls(e)est, lrest


Note. - With gd is to be assiciated (in meaning) the adv. sl, better, comp.adj.slla, slra, superl.adj. slost, slest; and the adv. and subst. m (m), more belongs to mra.

xlii
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.


ADVERBS.

CLASSIFICATION AND FORMATION OF ADVERBS.
(S.§§ 315-321.)


67. Some of the more important adverbs of place are the following: -
hwr (LWS hwr), where hwider, wither hwnan, whence
ðr (LWS ðr), there ðider, ðidres, thither ðnan, thence
hr, here hider, hidres, hither heonan, hence
inne, innan, within in(n) innan
te, tab, without t tan
uppe, uppan, up, above up(p) uppan
ufan, above ufan
neoðan, below, beneath niðor neoðan
foran, before forð foran
hindan, behind hinder hindan
ast, east astan
west, west westan
norð, north norðan
sð, south sðan
feorran, far feor(r), feorran
nah (nh, near nar, nan,

ADVERBS FORMED FROM ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.
68. (1) Many adverbs in their formation have a definate relation either to adjectives or to nouns. The largest class is derived from adjectives by the addition of the adverbial ending -e. Adjectives in -e remain unchanged.
Thus, adj. georn, eager, -adv.georne; hld, loud, hlde; hltor, clear, hltre; lng, long, lnge; dop,doplc, deep, dope, doplce; gld,glædlc, glad, etc. - glædlc. - From adjectives in -e: adj. blðe, joyful, - adv. blðe; clne, clean; clne.

INFLECTION: DECLENSION.
 xliii

Note 1. - In consequence of a marked preference for the termination -lce, these adverbs come to exceed in number adjectives in lc.
Note 2.- The adverbs sfte, swte are without the umlaut of the corresponding adjectives sft, soft swte, sweet.

69. Other adverbial endings are -a and -unga (-enga, -inga).
Thus: gara, of yore ( = Gen. pl. of gar, year); sna, soon tela (teola, teala, tala), properly; twa (twwa, twwa), twice; ðriwa, thrice. - ninga (ninga, nunga), entirely; eallunga (eallinga), altogether; grundlunga (grundlinga), completely; smnunga (smninga), suddenly; wninga, perhaps.

70. Oblique cases of nouns and adjectives are used adverbially, and from these, as well as from prepositional phrases, have sprung more or less permanent adverbial forms:
Thus (a) genitive adverbs: dæges, by day nihtes, by night; ealles, altogether; nealles ( = n + ealles; nlles, nlas, nlæs, nls), not at all; lles, otherwise; micles, very; nades, needs; simbles, singalles, allways; willes, gewealdes, willingly; self-willes, voluntarily; up-weards, upwards; tgegnes, against; ungewisses, unconciously; h gares, at what time of year.
(b) Accusative adverbs: fyrn, gefyrn, formerly; full, fully; geng, enough; hwn, somewhat; ltel, lt, little ungemt, immoderately; upweard, upward.
(c) Dative (Instr.) adverbs: hwne (instr.), somewhat; hm (hme), home; sre, sorely; hwllum, sometimes; stundmlum, time after time; ltlum, little; miclum, very.

xliv
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.


COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. (S. §§ 322. 323.)


71. Adverbs (chiefly those which are derived from adjectives) adopt the comparative and superlative endings -or, -ost (-ust, -ast): georne, eagerly; geornor, geornost.

72. Certain monosyllabic comparitives are without the comparative ending; these were originally in -iz ( = Goth. -is), and have therefore umlaut: r, earlier ( < *riz < *airiz, Goth. airis); bt, better (< *batiz, Goth. batis); nd, formerly; fierr, farther; eð (að), easier; ls, less; lng, longer; m, (m), more; nr (nar), nearer; sft, softer; sl, better; sð, later; tylg, more willingly.

NUMERALS.

CARDINAL AND ORDINAL NUMERALS. (S. &%167;§ 324-331.)


73. The cardinal and ordinal numbers are as follows:-

Cardinal. Ordinal.
1 n forma, formesta, fyrmest,
fyrest, fyrst; rest
2 twgan, t, tw ðer, æfterra
3 ðre, ðro, (ðro) ðridda
4 fower (fower) fowerða, forða
5 ff ffta
6 siex, six siexta
7 siofan (seofon) seofoða -eða
8 eahta eahtoða, -eða, -eoða
9 nigon nigoða, -eða, -eoða
10 ten, tn toða
11 ndlefan, -leofan, -lufan, etc. ndlefta, llefta, etc.
12 twlf twlfta


INFLECTION: DECLENSION.
 xlv


Cardinal. Ordinal.
13 ðrotene, -tne, -tne ðrotoða
14 fowertene fowertoða
15 fftene fftoða
16 siextene siextoða
17 seofontene seofontoða
18 eahtatene eahtatoða
19 nigontene nigontoða
20 twntig twntigoða, -tigða, -tiga, etc.
21 n nd twntig n nd twntigoða
30 ðrtig ðrtigoða
40 fowertig fowertigoða
50 fftig fftigoða
60 siextig siextigoða
70 (hund)seofontig (hund)seofontigoða
80 (hund)eahtatig (hund)eahtigoða
90 (hund)nigontig (hundnigontigoða
100 hundtontig, hund, hundred (hundtontigoða)
110 hundndlefantig
hundlleftig, etc. 		(hund)ndleftigoða
120 hundtwlftig (hund)twlftigoða
200 tw (t) hund
1000 ðsend


DECLENSION OF NUMERALS.

74. (1) The cardinal n, one, is generally declined like a strong adjective, with the acc.sg.masc. nne, nne, and the instr. sg. ne, ne. When it signifies alone, it is often declined weak. (see also the Indefinate Pronouns.)
(2) Themes: twgen, twin, two; ðre, three.

MASCULINE. NEUTER. FEMININE.
N.A. twgen t, tw tw
G. twg(e)a, twgra
D. twm, twam


xlvi
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.


MASCULINE. NEUTER. FEMININE.
N.A. ðre, ðr (ðr) ðro, ðro ðrom ðro
G. ðrora, ðrora
D. ðrm


(3) Like twgen is declined bgen, (beggan), both; nuet. b; fem. b; gen. bg(r)a; dat. bm, bm.

Note.- There is more or less disreguard of gender in the use of the above forms. The Fem. tw, which has been exended to the nuet., is sometimes used for wtgen, and b and b for bgen and ðro for ðre, occur. When nouns of differen gender are referred to, the nuet. form of the numeral is generally employed. There is a tendancy to use conjointly the monosyllabic forms of twgen and bgen, with some freedom as to gender: masc.fem. b tw; neut. (also masc.fem.) bt, bt, both.

(4) The cardinals from 4 to 19 are, as a rule, not inflected, except when they are used absolutely (i.e. without a noun); they then take the case-endings nom.acc. -e, gen. -a, dat. -um.
(5) The cardinals in -tig are often not inflected; when inflected, the case endings are gen. -a, -ra dat. -um and sometimes gen.sg. -es.
(6) hund, usually uninflected, has the dat.sg. hunde, and the nom.acc.pl. hunde, dat.pl. hundum. When inflected, hundred has the following case-endings: gen.sg. -es, dat.sg. -e; nom.acc.pl. -u, -o; gen.pl. -a, dat.pl. -um. The same case-endings with the addition of gen.pl. -ra occur with ðsend.
(7) The ordinals are all declined like weak adjectives, except rest, fyrmest, fyrest, fyrst, which conform to both the strong and the weak declension, and ðer which conforms to the strong declension only.

INFLECTION: DECLENSION.
 xlvii


PRONOUNS.


PERSONAL PRONOUNS. (S §§ 332-334)


75.Themes: First Person, ic,I; Second Person, ðu,thou; Third Person, h, he, hit,it,ho,she.
Sing.N. IC ðu
G. min ðin
D. m ðe
A. mec, m ðec, ð
Dual.N. wit git
G. uncer incer
D. unc inc
A. uncit, unc incit, inc
Plur.N. w g
G. ser, re ower(ower)
D. s ow(ow)
A. sic, s owic, ow(ow)

S.N. h hit ho (hio), he, hi
G. his his hiere, hire, hyre
D. him him hiere, hire, hyre
A. hiene, hine hit he, h (hig), ho
P.N.A. he, h (hg), h ho, (ho)
G. hiera, hira, hyra, heora, (hiora)
D. him, heom

Note.- The Personal Pronouns are also used as reflexives.


POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. (S. §§335, 336.)
76. The Possessive Pronouns mn,mine; ðn,thine; re,our; ower, your; sn, his, her, its; ncer, of us two; incer, of you two; are declined like adjectives (strong declension).

Note. - The genitives of the Third Personal Pronouns are often used as Possessives.
xlviii
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. (S. §§ 337-339.)

77. Themes: masc., s, neut., ðæt, fem., so, the, that; - masc., ðs, neut., ðis, fem., ðos, this.

S.N. s ðæt so (so)
G. ðæs ðæs ðære
D. ðm, ðm ðm, ðm ðre
A. ðone (ðan, ðæne) ðæt ð
I. ð, ð, ðon ð, ð, ðon

P.N.A. ð
G. ðra, ðra
D.I. ðm, ðm

S.N. ðs ðis ðos (ðos)
G. ðis(s)es, ðys(s)es ðisse, ðeosse (ðisre)
D. ðis(s)um, ðys(s)um, ðeosum ðisse, ðeosse; (ðisre)
A. ðisne, ðysne ðis ðs
I. ðs, ðs

P.N.A. ðs
G. ðissa, ðeossa; (ðissera)
D.I. ðis(s)um, ðys(s)um, ðeos(s)um


The demonstrative ilca, the same, is generally declined like a weak adjective; self, (seolf, silf, sylf), self, is both strong and weak in its declension.


RELATIVE PRONOUNS. (S. § 340.)


78. There is no inflected Relative Pronoun. This want is supplied by the use of the Relative Particle ðe, used either alone or in combination with the weaker demonstrative s, ðæt, so (and sometimes in combination with a Personal Pronoun), and by the relative use of this demonstrative.

INFLECTION: DECLENSION.
 xlix


INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. (S. §§ 341, 342.)

79. Theme masc., hw, who? neut., whæt, what?

S.N. hw hwæt
G. hwæs hwæs
D. hwm, hwm hwm, hwm
A. hwone (hwane, hwæ) hwæt
I. hw, hw, hwon (hwan) hw, hw, hwon (hwan)


hwæðer, which of two? hwilc (hwylc, hwelc), which? and hlic, of what sort? follow the strong declension of adjectives.

INDEFINATE PRONOUNS. (S.§§ 343-349.)


80. (1) The Indefinites lc, each; n, a, an; nig, any; nnig (< ne + nig), none; ðer, other; sum, certain; swilc, such, are declined like strong adjectives.

Note. - the nom. sg. mn (man) is used as an indefinate, one.

(2) The Interrogatives hw, hwæðer and hwilc are often used as Indefinites, They are also made indefinate by the use of sw, so: sw hw sw, who (so)ever; sw hwæer sw, which (so)ever of two; sw hwilc sw sw, who (so)ever. Moreover, the Interrogatives in composition yield many Indefinites: hw, any one; hwæt, anything; gwh, æthw, gehw, each, every, hwæðer (hwæðer, wðer, wðer, ðer, ðer) ; ghwæðer (gðer, ðer), either, each. nhwæðer, neither; ghwilc, gehwilc, each; smhwyle, someone. With the indeclinable -hwega (-hwegu, -hwuga, -u, etc.) as the second member of the compound: hwæthwega, something; hwilchwega, any one; and æthwega, somewhat.
(3) Other substantival indefinates are: wiht (huht, uht, ht, wiht, wuht, ht, anything; nwiht ( nuht, nht, nht, etc.) and nnwuht, nothing.

l
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.




CONJUGATION


GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS



81. (1) The two comprehensive classes of verbs are: (1) Strong Verbs, (a) those which form the Principal Parts with a variation of the Radical Vowel (Ablaut), and (b) those which (without ablaut) form the Preterit and Past Participle in d(t).
(2) The Principle Parts of a verb are the Infinitive (which contains that form of the radical vowel which is employed in the entire system of the present tense), the Preterit Singular (and, in the case of Strong Verbs, the Preterit Plural), and the Past Participle. Thus

drfan, to drive; drf, drifon; (ge)drifen.
dman, to judge; dmde; (ge)dmed.


CLASSIFICATION OF STRONG VERBS.

(a) ABLAUT VERBS. (S.§§ 379-392.)


82. Ablaut verbs are divided into six classes, in accordace with the principle variations in ablaut (which are due in part to differences in character of the final consonants of the radical syllable).

83. (1) Class I. - Vowels: ; ; i; i. - (Germanic ei> ; ai, i; i Thus,

(a) bdan, bide bd, bidon (ge)biden.
btan, bite; bt, biton; (ge)biten.


INFLECTION: CONJUGATION.
li


gldan, glide; gld, glidon; (ge)gliden.
rdan, rd, ridon; (ge)riden.
rsan, rise; rs, rison; (ge)risen.
writan, write; wrt, writon; (ge)writen.
(b) snðan, cut; snð, snidon; (ge)sniden.
(c) ðon (18, N. 2), thrive; ðh, ðigon; (ge)ðigen.


in snðan and ðon (< *ðhan,18, Note 2) medial ð and h of the firsttwo parts are changed into d and g in the pret.pl. and pp. (past participle). This change from ð to d, g to g also (in other classes of verbs) from h to w (g) (< hw - gw) and s to r, is called Grammatical Change (S. §§ 233-234).

Note 1. - Grammatical Change (only partially preserved) is due to an origional (proto-Germanic) difference of accent, according to which the pret.pl. and the pp. were accented on the final syllable (Verner's Law).
Note 2. - The weak verb rignan > rnan (16), to rain, pret. rnde, has also a preterit rn (cf. frignan > frnan, 85, Note 3).

(3) To the contract verb ðon is to be added lon, to lend; son, to strain, sift; ton, to censure; wron, to cover. The accidental agreement in the present between these verbs and the contract verbs of Class II has resulted in the production of double forms in the other tenses. Thus,

ton; th (tah), tigon (tugon) tigen (togen)
ðon; ðh, ðigon (ðugon); ðigen (ðogen);
wron; wrh (wrah), wrigon (wrugon); wrigen (wrogen).


Note 3. - ðon has also forms according to Class III, such as pret. pl. ofer-ðungeon; pp. ofer-ðungen; pp. (adj.) ge-ðungen, grown, excellent, etc. These are traces of the original form *ðenhan > *ðhan (18, Note 2).
Note 4. - The prefix ge- is not always used with the past participle. Hereafter it will be omitted in giving principle parts.

lii
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.


84. Class II. - Vowels: o (); a, u; o. - (Germ. eu(); au, u; u). Thus,

(a) bodan, command; bad, budon; bodon.
clofan, cleave; claf, clufon; clofen.
cropan, creep; crap, crupon; cropen.
drogan, endure; drag, drugon; drogen.
flogan, fly; flag, flugon; flogen.

(b) brcan, enjoy; brac, brucon; brocen.
bgan, bow; bag, bugon; bogen.
dfan, dive; daf, dufon; dofen.

(c) cosan, choose; cas, curon (83,2); coren.
frosan, freeze; fras, fruron; froren.
hrosan, fall; hras, hruron; hroren.
(for)losan, lose; las, loron; loren.
soðan, seethe; sað, sudon; soden.

(d) flon, flee; floh, flugon; flogen.
ton, draw; tah, tugon; togen.



85. Class III. - Vowels: e (i, eo); æ (, &ealig;), U; U (o). - (Germ. e (> i before nasal + cons.); a, u; U (o)). The verbs of this class are best considered in three divisions.
(1) Verbs with a nasal + consonant after the radial vowel. Thus,

bindan, bind; bnd (8), bundon; bundedn.
drincan, drink; drnc, druncon; druncen.
findan, find; fnd, fundon; funden.
(on)ginnan, begin; gn(n), gunnon; gunnen.
grindan, grind; grnd, grundon; grunden.
singan, sing; sng, sungon; sungen.
swimmam, swim; swm(m), swummon; swummen.


Note 1. - The verb rinnan, to run, rn(n), runnon, runnen, is more commonly user with metathesis in the first two parts: irnan (iernan, yrnan), rn (arn), - There is also metathesis in beornan (= Goth. brinnan), to burn, brn(n), (brn, barn, bearn), burnon, burnen.


INFLECTION: CONJUGATION.
liii


(2) Verbs with l + consonant after the radical vowel. Thus,

(a) helpan (9,b), help; healp (9, a), hulpon; holpen.
belgan, be angry; bealg, bulgon; bolgen.
delfan, delve; dealf, dulfon; dolfen.
meltan, melt; mealt, multon; molten.
swelgan, swallow; swealg, swulgon; swolgen.
swellan, swell; sweal(l), swullon; swollen.
sweltan, die; swealt, swulton; swolten.

(b) gieldan(10,c), yield; geald, guldon; golden.
giellan, yell; geal(l), gullon; gollen.
gielpan, boast; gealp, gulpon; golpen.

(c) folan, reach; fealh, fulgon(83,2); folgen.


Note 2. - folan <*feolhan (9,b) (= Goth. filhan); there is also a pret. pl. flon and a pp. folen according to Class IV.

(3) Verbs with r or h + consonant after the radical vowel. Thus,


(a) feohtan, (9, b), fight; feaht (9, a), fuhton; fohten.
beorgan, protect; bearg, burgon; borgen,
ceorfan, carve; cearf, curfon; corfen.
deorfan, labor; dearf, durfon; dorfen.
smeortan, smart; smeart, smurton; smorten.

(b)
hweorfan
(hwurfan, 19) 		,turn;
whearf, hwurfon; hworfen.
weorpan
(wurpan) 		,cast;
wearp, wurpon; worpen.

(c)
weorðan
(wurðan) 		,become;
wearð, wurdon
(83,2); 		worden.


(4) Certain remaining verbs of this class are best considered together.

bregdan
(brdan)		 ,brandish;
braelig;gd
(brd), 		brugdon
(brdon); 		brogden
(brden).
stregdan
(strdan)		 ,strew;
strægd
(strd), 		strugdon
(strdon); 		strogden
(strden).
berstan, burst; bærst, burston; borsten.


liv
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.


ðerscan, thresh; ðærsc, ðurscon; ðorscen.
frignan
(frnan, 16) 		,inquire;
frægn
(frn),		 frugnon
(frnon); 		frugnen
(frnen).
murnen, mourn; mearn, murnon.
spurnan
(spornan) 		,spurn;
spearn, spurnon.


Note 3. - stregdan has also become a weak verb. - By the loss of g and the compensatory lengthening of the radical vowel frignan becomes frnan (16) and being thus attracted to Class I, yields the preterit frn. There is also occassionally assimilation of g to n resulting in frinnan, pret.pl. frunnon, etc. The metathesis on n appears in pret. sg. freng, pret. pl. frungon. Other forms are: pret.pl. frugonl pp. gefrugen, gefregen, gefrægen and gefrigen (cf. 87, Note).

86. Class IV. - Vowels: e; æ, ; o (u). -(Germ. e; a, ; o (u)). In this class the radical vowel is followed by a single liquid or nasal (l, r, m), Thus,

(a) beran, bear; bær(7), bron; boren.
cwelan, die; cwæl, cwlon; cwolen.
helan, conceal; hæl , hlon; holen.
stelan, steal; stæl, stlon; stolen.
teran, tear; tær, tron; toren.

(b) brecan, break; bræc, brcon; brocen.

(c) scieran(10), shear; scear, sceron; scoren.
(d) niman, take;
nm
(nam),
nmon
(nmon);
numen.
cuman, come; c(w)m, c(w)mon; cumen
(cymen).


Note. - In brecan the r precedes the radical vowel; it should therefore be found in Class V (c.f. sprecan). -niman has changed e to i before m, and the u of cuman is exceptional. The preterits of these two verbs are also exceptional in having (< before a nasal) in the pl., which has also been transferred into the sing. The LWS forms are usually nam nmon, cm, cmon.

INFLECTION: CONJUGATION.
lv


87. Class V. -Vowels: e (i); æ, ; e. -(Germ. e (i); a, ; e). The radical vowel is follwoed by a single consonant (except a liquid or a nasal; cf. Class IV). Thus

(a) metan, measure; mæt(7), mton; meten.
drepan, strike; dræp, drpon; drepen
(dropen).
lesan, collect; læs, lson; lesen.
(ge)nesan, recover; næs, nson; nesen.
sprecan, speak; spræk, sprcon; sprecen.
specan, (LWS); spæk, spcon; specen.
tredan, tread; træd, trdon; treden.
wegan, carry; wæg, wgon
(won); 		wegen.

(b) etan, eat; æt, ton; eten.
freten, devour; fræt, frton; freten.

(c) cweðan, say; cwæð, cwðon (83, 2); cweden.

(d) giefan (10), give; geaf, gafon; giefen.
gietan, get; geat, gaton; gieten.
(e)
(ge)fon
 (18,N.2) 		, rejoice;
gefeah
(9,a),
gefgon (83,2); 		(adj.) gefægen.
plon, risk; pleah.
son, see; seah, swon(83,2);
sgon<.b>;		 sewen(sawen)
segen.


(f)Several presents are formed in -jan. In Germanic the radical vowel e, when thus followed by -j, became i (cf 13, Note); and the final radical consonant is geminated (11). Thus,

biddan (=Goth.
 bidjan), bid; 		bæd, bdon; beden.
leig(e)an, lie; læg, lgon (lgon); legen.
sittan, sit; sæt, ston; seten.
frieg(e)an, inquire; frigen.
ðieg(e)an, take; ðeah (ðh).

Note. - The quantity of t and frt are exceptional. - Verbs in g may have in the pret. pl. (lgon, wgon). - frierg(e)an does

lvi
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.

not occur in the pret. The pp. frigen may belong to frignan (cf. 85, Note 3). - ðieg(e)an has also weak preterits ðigede and ðigde.

88. Class VI. - Vowels: a; , ; a.- (Germ. a; , ; a. Thus,
(a) faren, go; fr, fron; faren (færen).
bacan, bake; bc, bcon; bacen.
dragen, draw; drg , drgon ; dragen .
galen, sing; gl, glon; galen.
grafen, grave; grf, grfon; graven.
hladen, load; hld, hldon; hladen.
sacan, content; sc, scon; sacen (sæcen).
stndan, stand; std, stdon; stnden.
waden, go; wd, wdon; waden.
[wæcnan], awake; wc, wcon.
(b)
sc(e)acan
(10,N.1)		 shake,
hasten;
sc,
scc, 		sccon
scocen;
sc(e)acen
(scæcen).
sc(e)afan, shave; scf, scfon; sc(e)afen.
(c) spnan, entice; spn
(spon), 		spnen
(sponon); 		spanen.
weaxan(9), grow; wx
wox, 		wxen
woxen; 		weaxen.
(d) flan(18,N.2), flay; flg (flh), flgon; flagen.
lan, blame; lg (lh), lgon; lagen (lgen
lægen.
slan, strike; slg (slh), slgon; slagen (slgen
slægen).
ðwan, wash; ðwg
(ðwh), 		ðwgon; ðwagen (ðwgen,
ðwægen, ðwogon).

(e) Presents in -jan (cf. 87,f):

hbban(11), heave; hf, hfon; hafen(hæfen)
hliehhan, laugh; hlf, hlgon(83,2).
scððan, injure
sceaððan (10,N.1); 		scd
scod,		 scdon
scodon.

INFLECTION: CONJUGATION.
lvii

scieppan(11), create; scp
scop(10.N.1),		 scpon;
scopon;		 scpen
(sceapen).
stppan
(stæppan)		 step; stp stpon stapen
sqri(ge)an
(10,N.3)		 sware; swr, swron; swaren
(sworen).

Note 1. - In the pp. the vowel A is often changed to or æ.- wæcnan is a weak present, which, in the absence of a strong form, is associated with the pret. wc. - spnan (LWS also spnnan) has the additional pret. spon which is due to association with reduplicating verbs (cf. spnnan, to span). - weaxan (weahsan) has adopted commonly the pret. of a reduplicating verb.
Note 2. - In flg, lg, slg, etc. for (flh, etc.), grammatical change (83,2) has yielded to the influence of the pl.; the return to flh, etc., is due to the change of final g into h (16, Note).
Note 3. - Some of these verbs have also weak forms: hbban, pret. hfde, pp. hfod; scðede; swrian, swrede, etc.

(b) REDUPLICATING VERBS. (S. §§ 393-397.)


89. (1) Reduplicating verbs originally formed the preterit by prefixing to the radical syllable a syllable of reduplication, which consisted of the initial radical consonant+e, the vowel of reduplication. A fusion of these two syllables resulted in the surviving preterits. In a few instances there are indications of the mode of that fusion; e.g., pret of htan: *he-ht (= Goth. haihait) > *hé-hat > heht > ht; similarly leolc, leort, reord, ondreord, occasional (Anglian) preterits of lcan, ltan, rdan, ondrdan.
(2) Reduplicating verbs have the same resultant radical vowel in the entire preterit; and the radical vowel of the past participle is the same as that of the present.

lviii
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.


90. Reduplicating verbs may be considered as forming to classes: (1) the -preterit class, and (2) the o-preterit class. The radical vowels of the present are reguarded in subdivisions of the classes.
(1) e-Preterit Class.

(a) blndan(8), blend; blnd, blndon; blnden.
(b) htan, call; heht, ht, heton; hten.
lcan, leap; (leolc) lc, lcon; lcen.
scdan, separate,
scadan(10,N.1); 		scd,
scad, 		scdon;
scadon; 		scaden.


Note 1. - the verb htan has other forms of special importance: (ic) htte, I am called (named, 'hight') is the sole relic of a medio-passive conjugation, and corrosponds to Goth. haitada; the corresponding pl. htton has the common weak pret. form. As to tense htte, htton are used both as presents and as preterits, and the infinitive htan is also used with this passive sense.
(c) (on)drdan, fear; (dreord)
drd, 		drdon; drden
ltan, let; (leort) (lt), lton; lten.
rdan, counsel; (reord)rd rdon; rden.
slpan
 (slpan)		 , sleep;
slp , slpon; slpen.
slpen

Note 2.- (on)drdan and slpan occasionally have the pret. weak: ondrdde, slpte, slpte, etc. - rdan, on the other hand, is commonly conjugated as a weak verb: pret. rdde.

(d) fn (18, N.2), sieze; fng, fngon; fngen.
hn, hang; hng, hngon; gngen.


(2) o-Preterit Class.

(a) fealdan (9, a), fold; fold, foldon; fealdan.
feallan, fall; foll, follon; feallen.
healdan, held; hold, holdon; healden.
wealcan, roll; wolc, wolcon; wealcen.
wealdan, weild; wold, woldon; wealden.
weallan, well; woll, wollon; weallen.
weaxan
 (88,N.1) 		,grow;
wox, woxon; weaxen.


INFLECTION: CONJUGATION.
lix


(b) bnnan, summon; (bnn) bonn, -on; bnnen.
spnnan, attack; (spnn) sponn, -on; spnnen.
gngan, go; (g) geong, -on; gngen.


Note 3.- gngan is very irregular; there is an inf. gengan, pret. gng, and gngdle; also gang. The most commonly used pret. ode belongs to gn (107,4).

(c) batan, beat; bot, boton; baten.
hawan, hew; how, howon; hawen.
hlapan, leap; hlop, hlopon; hlapen,
()hneapan, pluck; hnop, hnopon; hnapen.
(d) bltan, sacrifice; blot, bloton; blten.
hrpan, shout; hrop, hropon; hrpen.
hwpan, threaten; hwop, hwopon; hwpen;
blwen, bloom; blow, blowon; blwen.
flwan, flow; flow, flowon; flwen.
grwan, flow; grow, growon; grwen.
rwan, flow; row, rowon; rwen.
spwan, flow; spow, spowon; spwen.
(e) jan-presents (cf. 87.f):
hwsan, wheeze; hwos, hwoson; hwsen.
wpan, weep; wop, wopon; wpen.
(f) blwan, blow; blow, blowon; blwen.
cnwan, blow; cnow, cnowon; cnwen.
crwan, blow; crow, crowon; crwen.
swan, blow; sow, sowon; swen.
swpan, blow; swop, swopon; swpen.


lx
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.


CONJUGATION OF STRONG VERBS. (s.§§ 350-378.)


91. Themes: Ablaut verbs, singan, to sing; beran, to bear. - Reduplicating verb, healdan, to hold.

PRESENT.
Indicative.
Sing. 1.
2.
3.
Plur. 1-3.		 singe
singest
singeð
singað		 bere
bir(e)st
bir(e)ð
berað		 healde
hieltst, healdedt
hielt,healt, healdeð
healdað
Optative.
Sing. 1-3.
Plur. 1-3. 		singe
singen 		bere
beren 		healde
healden
Imperative.
Sing. 2.
Plur. 2. 		sing
singað 		ber
berað 		heald
healdað
Infinitive. singan beran healdan
Gerund. t singanne
 (-enne, -onne) 		beranne healdanne
Pres.Part. singende berende healdende
Preterit.
Indicative.
Sing. 1.
2.
3.
Plur. 1-3.		 sng
sunge
sng
sungon 		bær
bre
bær
bron		 hold
holde
hold
holdon
Optative.
Sing. 1-3
Plur. 1-3		 sunge
sungen 		bre
breon		 holde
holden
Past. Part. (ge)sungen (ge)boren (ge)healden


INFLECTION: CONJUGATION.
lxi


92. Themes: Contracted presents (18, Note 2), son, to see; fn, to sieze (reduplicating verb). - Presents in -jan, biddan, to bid; liegan, to lie.

PRESENT.
Indicative.
Sing. 1. so f bidde liege
2. siehst fhst bid(e)st
bitst 		lig(e)st
3. siehð fhð bideð
bit(t) 		lig(e)ð
lð
Plur. 1-3. soð fð biddað liegað
Optative.
Sing. 1-3.
Plur. 1-3. 		so
son		 f
fn 		bidde
bidden 		liege
liegen
Imperative.
Sing. 2.
Plur. 2. 		seoh
soð		 fh
fð
bide
biddað 		lige
liegað
Infinative
Gerund
Pres.Part. 		son
t sonne
sonde 		fn
fnne
fnde 		biddan
biddanne
biddende 		liegan
lieganne
liegende
PRETERIT
Indicative.
Sing. 1.
2.
3.
Plur. 1-3. 		seah
swe
seah
swon 		fng
fnge
fng
fngon		 bæd
bde
bæd
bdon		 læg
lge
læge
lgon
Optative.
Sing. 1-3.
Plur. 1-3. 		swe
swen		 fnge
fngen		 bde
bden		 lge
lgen
Past Part. (ge)sewen (ge)fngen (ge)beden (ge)legen



lxii
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.


93. (1) The personal endings of the verb exhibit some variations. The older ending of the 1 sg. pres. indic. is -u (-o), but its use is restricted even in EWS; the prevailing ending is -e (conforming to -est, -eð).
The 2 sg. pres. indic. originally ended in -es (<*-is); the subjoined pronoun ðu contributed the added t. In EWS -es is occasionally found, and sometimes the intermediate form -esð, but the common form is est.
The older ending of the pret. indic. pl. -un is used in EWSm but not as frequently as -on (-an). In LWS the regular ending -onis often weakened to -an, -un, etc.
For the opt. pl. ending -en, pres. and pret. -on and -an sometimes occur in EWS, but in LWS this ending -en is very commonly disguised under the weakened forms -on, -an, -un, etc.
(2) When the pronominal subjects w, we, g, ye, are placed immediately after the verb, the verbal ending is often (not uniformly) reduced to -e. Originally this form was in all probability restricted to the adhortative optative; the -e would therefore represent a reduction of -en. But in the historic periods of West-Saxon the indic. pres. and pret. and the imperative (-að and -on also giving way to -e) are found attracted to this usage.
Thus, w (g) cweðað but cweðe w (g); w (g) magon, but mage w (g); w (g) nimen, but nime w (g); w (g) cmon (shton), but cme (shte w (g).
(3) The 2 sg. imperative of presents in -jan with short radical vowel have the ending -e, and simplify the geminated consonant (bide, lige).


Note. - The w sg. pret. of ablaut verbs has that form of the radical vowel which belongs to the pret. pl. and optative; it is, presumably, an optative form transferred into the indicative. (cf. 105, 2).

INFLECTION: CONJUGATION.
lxiii


(4) The 2 and 3 sg.pres.indic. have three special features: (1) The geminated consonants of presents in -jan are simplified: bidest, bideð; ligest, ligeð. The radical vowel is unchanged in a manner corresponding to the operation of umlaut. This process is therefore called umlaut, although it is older than the ordinary umlaut and includes the change of e into i. This umlaut is not uniformly operative; it is most regular in EWS. (3) The personal endings may be syncopated, that is, the e of -est, eð may dissappear; the consequent combination of the final radical consonant and -st, -ð produces results the more common of which are the following:
(a) d + st becomes tst: biddan, ðu bitst; stndan, ðu stntst. This coincides with t + st: btan, ðu btst; gietan, ðu gi(e)tst.
(b)ð + st becomes tst or st: snðan, ðu sntst: weorðanm ðu wi(e)rst: cweðanm ðu cwist.
(c) g + st becomes (less frequently) hst: logan, ðu lehst; gan, ðu, stgst, sthst. And occasionally c + st becomes hst: scan, ðu scst, shst; but brcan, ðu brcst, etc.
(d) d and t + ð become t or tt: biddan, h bidt, bit(t); beodan, h bebet(t); etan, h it(t); feohtan, h fieht htan, h ht.
(e) ð + ð becomes ð: cweðan, h cwið; snðan, h snð; weorðan, h wierð.
(f) s + ð becomes ð: cosan, h cest; gehronsan, h gehr(e)st; forlosan, h forl(e)st.
(g) g + ð becomes (less frequently) hð: drogan, h dr(e)gð; logan, h l(e)gð, l(e)hð.
Occasionally c + ð becomes hð: scan, h scð, shð but ðyncan, ðyncð, etc.

lxiv
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.


CLASSIFICATION OF WEAK VERBS. (S. § 398.)

94. There are three classes of Weak Verbs: (1) the jo- class, (2) the -class, and (3) the ai-class. The Preterit and the Past Participle of all classes are formed in d(t).

Note 1. - The formative and derivative -jo- (more strictly, -ejo-) is the same element which is employed in the presents of strong verbs in -jan. The verbs of the First Class may, therefore, with equal propriety, be called verb in -jan.
Note 2. - Most weak verbs are derivative. Thus, dm, judgment, > dman (<*dmian), to judge; cð, adj., known, >cðan (<*cðian), to make known; feorr, adv.far,> -fierran (<*-feorrian), to remove; tc(e)n, token, > tcnian ( <* tcnjan),to betoken.
Some weak verbs are the transitive (or causative) complements of corresponding intransative strong verbs, the radical syllable of the weak verb corresponding to that of the pret.sg. of the strong verb. Thus: liegan, to lie, pret.sg. læg, - lcgan, to lay (<*lægjan); sittan, to sit, pret.sg. sæt, - sttan, to set (<*sætjan); cwelan, to die, pret.sg. cwel, -cw, to kill (<*cwæljan); risan, to rise, pret.sg. rs, - rran, to rear, raise (<*rrian; r< s ) ; drincan, to drink, pret.sg. drnc, - drncan, to drench (< *drncian).

CONJUGATION OF THE FIRST CLASS OF WEAK VERBS.
(S. §§ 409, 410.)


95. Themes: frmman, to perform; hrian, to praise; dman, to judge; ldan, to lead.

PRESENT.
Indicative
Sing. 1. frmme hrie dme   lde
2. frmest hrest dm(e)st ld(e)st
ltst
3. frmeð hreð dm(e)ð ldeð, ldt,
  lt
Plur. 1-3. frmmað hreð dmað   ldað


INFLECTION: CONJUGATION.
lxv


Optative
Sing. 1-3 frmme hrie dme lde
Plur. 1-3 frmmen hrien dmen lden
Imperative
Sing. 2 frme hre dm ld
Plur. 2 frmmað hriað dmað ldað
Infinative. frmman hrian dman ldan
Gerund. t frmmanne
(-enne, -onne) 		hrianne dmanne ldanne
Pres. Part. frmmende hriende dmende ldende

Preterit.
Indicative.
Optative.
Sing. 1. frmde hrede dmde ldde
2. frmedest hredest dmdest lddest
3. frmede hrede dmde ldde
Plur. 1-3. frmedon hredon dmdon lddon
Sing. 1-3. frmede hrede dmde ldde
Plur. 1-3. frmeden hreden dmden ldden
Past. Part. (ge)frmed (ge)hred (ge)dmded (ge)ldded
(ge)ld(d)

96. (1) The j (i) of the element -jo (which became -io- after a long radical syllable; cf. 11, Note 2) produces umlaut of the radical vowel, and gemination of the final radical consonant, when single (except r), after a short radical vowel. (11).
Thus frmman (< *frmjan); hrian (< *hrjan); dman (< *dmian).
(2) The geminated consonant is simplified in the 2 and 3 sg. pres. indic., and in the 2 sg. imperative (cf. 93, 3, 4): frmest, frmeð, frme.
lxvi
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.


Verbs in r exhibit the various graphic substitutions for i (j) + a vowel (10, Note 3.) Thus, hrian, hrgan, hrigean, etc.; 1 sg. pres. indic. herie, hrge, herige, etc.

Note 1. - in the 2 and 3 sg. pres. indic. syncope of the vowel of the personal ending is most frequent with verbs having a long radical syllable: dm(e)st, dm(e)ð, etc.

(3) The 2 sg. imperative ends in -e (with simplification of the geminated consonant), but when the radical syllable is long this ending disapepars: frme, dm (cf. 93, 3).

Note 2. - In a few instances in EWS and somewhat oftener in LWS, the 2 sg. imperative ending -e is found after a long radical syllable: lre, teach; snde, send; here, hear.

(4) An external agreement in some forms between verbs in r (like hrian; nrian,to save; drian, to injure) and verbs of the Second Class, has gradually brought these verbs in r into more or less frequent and complete conformity with the conjugation of the Second Class. Thus, 3 sg. pres. indic. dreð and drað; pret. sg. nrede and nrode; styrian, to stir, pret. sg. styrede and styrode.

This resultant double mode of conjugation has also been extended to other verbs. Thus frmman and frmian, 3 sg. pres. indic. frmeð and frmað, pret. sg. frmede and frmode, pp. frmed and frmod; dwllan (98) and dwlian, to deceive; trymman and trymian, to confirm, etc.

INFLECTION: CONJUGATION.
lxvii


FORMATION OF THE PRETERIT TENSE AND OF THE
PAST PARTICIPLE. (S. §§ 401-408.)

97. (1) verbs with an originally short radical syllable (i.e. those which admit of gemination of the final radical consonant and those in r; 11) have the pret. (sg.) in -ede and the pp. in -ed, with simplification of the geminated consonant and with umlaut of the radical vowel: frmede, (ge) frmed; hrede, hreg.

Note 1.-lcgan, to lay, is exceptional in having syncope of the middle vowel: pret. lgde (lde,13), pp. lgd (ld).
Note 2. - Verbs in d or t syncopate the middle vowel and t _ d becomes tt: hrddan, to liberate, pret. hrdde, pp. hrd(d); trdlan, to tread; pret. trdde, pp. trd(d); lttan, to hinder, pret. ltte, pp. lt(t); sttan, to set pret. stte, pp. st(t). In the uninflected form these participles sometimes retain the middle vowel: trded, sted, etc.
So also verbs in the derivative -ettan (= -ttan; Goth. -atjan), like bliccettan, to lighten, ndettan, to confess, nettan, to hasten, etc.: lcettan, to pretend, pret. lcette, pp. lcet(t).

(2) Verbs with an originally long radical syllable syncopate the middle vowel in the preterit (-ede > -de), and usually in the inflected forms of the past participle that have a vocalic case-ending. The radical vowel is umlauted: pret. dmde, pp. dmed, pl. dmde.

Note 3. - The pp. of verbs in d or t (cf. 97, Note 2) often syncopate the middle vowel: lded, ld(d); hdan, to hide, pret. hdde, pp. hded, hd(d); mtan, to meet, pret. mtte, pp. mted, mt(t).
When preceded by a consonant, d + d and tt ( are simplified: sndan, to send, pret. snde, pp. snded, snd; wndan, to turn, pret. wnde, pp. wnded, wnd; hæftan,, to seize, pret. hæfte, pp. hæfted, hæft; wstan, to lay waste, pret. wste, pp. wsted, wst.
Note 4. - Other phonetic changes resulting from the combination of a final radical consonant and the d of the pret. and pp. are the following:
(a) After a voiceless consonant (c,p,t,ff,ss,x (=cs)), d becomes t: drncan, to drench, pret. ncte, pp. drnced, pl. drncte; hys-
lxviii
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.


pan, to revile, pret. hyspte; clyppan, to embrace, pret. clypte, pp. clypt; for verbs in t see the preceeding Note; cyssan, to kiss, pret. cyste, pp. cyssed; lxan, to shine, pret. lxte.
Verbs in the derivative -lc(e)an hav ethe pret. and pp. in ct or ht: nalcan, to approachm pret. nalcte, pp. nalct, nalht. This change of ct to ht is found occasionally in other verbs: ecan, to increase, pret. ecte, ehte, pp. eced, ect, eht; ðryccan, to opress, pret. ðrycte, ðryhte, pp. ðrycced.
(b) ð + d remains, or becomes dd: cðan, to make known, pret. cðde, cdde, pp. cðed, cd(d); nðan, to venture, pret. nðde, ndde.
(c) The usual pret. of nmnan, to name is nmde, and of fnan, ræfnam, to perform, fnde, ræfnde; but verbs in a consonant + n, l, r generally retain the n, l, or r in the form of a syllable (ne; el, le; er, re), and are this attracted, particularly in LWS, into the Second Conjugation: pret. nmnode, fnde; pp. nmned, nmnede, nmnode ; timbran (timbrian), to build, pret. timberde, timbrede, timbrode, pp. timbred, timbrod; deglan, to conceal, pret. degelde, deglede, deglode, etc.
(d) In the pret. and pp. of verbs in rw and lw the w sometimes dissapears: gierwan, to prepare, pret. gierede, pp. gierwed, giered; wielwan, to roll, pret. wielede, pp. wielwed. Many of these verbs (with or without the w in all forms) are attracted in LWS into the Second Conjugation: smierwan, to annoint, smyrian; pret. smyrode, pp. smyrod; wielwan (wylwianm wylian).

VERBS WITHOUT THE MIDDLE VOWEL. (S. § 407.)

98. In the verbs of the following group the middle vowel e (<i ) was never present. These verbs have therefore two special features: (1) the lack of umlaut in the preterit and in the past participlel and (2) the (Germanic) change of original c and g + d into ht.
Thus, cwcc(e)an (10, Note 2), to shake, <* cw&ealig;cjan (11), pret. cwahte < *cwæhte (9, a); sc(e)an, to seek, < *scian, pret. shte; ðnc(e)an, to think < *ðncian (8), pret. ðhte < *ðnhte; ðync(e)an, to seem, pret. ðhte < *ðunhte.


INFLECTION: CONJUGATION.
lxix


Note 1.- ðhte and ðhte illustrate the Germanic disappearance of n before the voiceless spirant h with compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel. (cf. 8, Note).

The group is as follows:
cwllan ,kill; cwealde; (ge)cweald.
dwllan,deceive; dwealde; (ge)dweald.
sllan,give; sealde; (ge)seald.
stllan,place; stealde; (ge)steald.
tllan,count; tealde; (ge)teald.
cwcc(e)an,shake; cweahte
cwhte;		 (ge)cweaht
(ge)cwht.
drcc(e)an,vex; dreahte,(); (ge)dreaht,().
lcc(e)an,moisten; leahte, (); (ge)leaht, ().
rcc(e)an,expound; reahte, (); (ge)reaht, ().
strecc(e)an,stretch; streahte, (); (ge)streaht, ().
ðcc(e)an,cover; ðeahte, (); (ge)ðeaht, ().
wcc(e)an,wake; weahte, (); (ge)weaht, ().
læcc(e)an,seize; leahte; (ge)leaht.
bepc(e)an,deceive; bep; (ge)bepht.
rc(e)an,reach; rhte; (ge)rht.
tc(e)an,teach; thte; (ge)tht.
rc(e)an
rcc(e)an		 ,reck;
 rhte.
sc(e)an, seek; shte; (ge)sht.
ðnc(e)an, think; ðhte; (ge)ðht.
ðync(e)an, seem; ð; (ge)ðht.
wyrc(e)an, work; worhte; (ge)worht.
bycg(e)an, buy; bohte; (ge)boht.
bringan
brngan		 ,bring;
 brhte; gebrht.

Note 2. - In LWS dwllan has also the forms dwlian, pret. dwlede, dwlode, pp. dwled, dwlod (96, 4). A trace of an ablaut verb dwelan is found in the pret. d(w)æl. the pp. of tllan also appears as tled, and sllan is in LWS usually syllan.
Note 3. - In LWS wcc(e)an often becomes wrcc(e)an. A difference of origin, apparently, underlies rc(e)an ( < *rcian) and rcc(e)an (< *ræcjan); so, too, bringan and brngan. A trace of an ablaut verb is the pp. brungen.
Note 4. - In bepc(e)an, rc(e)an, and tc(e)an the umlauted vowel of the present has been transfered to the pret. and pp. the

lxx
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.



more correct forms, rht(e) and tht(e), occur occasionally in both EWS and LWS.

Note 5. - In LWS metathesis occasionally takes place in the pret. and pp. of wyrc(e)an: wrohte, wroht; and forwyrhte, forwyrht (with the vowel of the preset) occur.
Note 6. - Occasionally in EWS and almost always in LWS the ea before ht in the pret. and pp. of verbs in c becomes ; this is either by transference of the vowel of the present, or (less probably) by palatal-umlaut (15 Note 1): cwhte, (ge)cwht; drhte, (ge)drht, etc.

THE SECOND CLASS OF WEAK VERBS. (S. §§ 411-414)

99. The class-suffix of verbs of the Second Conjugation is - (94); by the addition of -jan the full (infinative) ending became *-jan, and this became -ian. Because of the original , the second class suffix in the form i does not occasion umlaut or any other change that might be wrought by an original i ( cf. 7, Note); on the other hand, the class-suffix may cause u-o-umlaut (14): clipian, cliopan, to cry out; hlinian, hlionian, to lean, etc.

Note 1. - Umlaut appearing in a verb of this class is either due to transference from the First Class (96, 4; 97, Note 4, c), or to the word from which the verb is derived: ndian, to end [nde, end]; clnsian, to cleanse [clne, adj. jo-stem, clean].
Note 2. - In metrical usage the class-suffix has a secondary stress (5, Note).

CONJUGATION OF THE SECOND CLASS OF WEAK VERBS.

100. Themes: bodian, to proclaim; smag(e)an, to consider.
Present.
Indicative
Sing. 1 bodie, (-ige) smage
2. bodast smast
3. bodað smað
Plur. 1-3 bodiað, (ig(e)að) smag(e)að

INFLECTION: CONJUGATION.
lxxi


OPTATIVE.
Sing. 1-3. bodie, (-ige) smage
Plur. 1-3. bodien, (-igen) smagen

IMPERATIVE.
Sing. 2. boda sma
Plur. 2. bodiað, (-ig(e)að) smag(e)að
Infinative. bodian, (-ig(e)an) smag(e)an,(sman)
Gerund. bodianne,(-ig(e)anne,
-enne, -onne)		 smag(e)anne
Pres. Part. bodiende, (-igende) smagende

PRETERIT.
Indicative
Sing. 1. bodode, (-ade, -ude) smade
2. bododest smadest
3. bodode smade
Plur. 1-3. bododon, (-edon) smadon
OPTATIVE.
Sing. 1-3. bodode, (-ade, -ude) smade
Plur. 1-3. bododen, (-edon) smadon
Past. Part. (ge)bodod, (-ad, -ud) (ge)smad

Note 1. - In these verbs the graphic substitutions for ie, ia are common. (10, Note 3).
Note 2. - the varient forms of the class-vowel o of the pret. are a, u; less frequently e, except in the pl., where e shares the preference equally with o.
Note 3. - trwian, to trust (originally of the Third and ðowian, to serve, sometimes syncopate the middle vowel in the preterit: trwde, ðowde; with loss of the w, ðode (ðodde).

101. smag(e)an ( < *smahjan < *smauhjan) represents a small number of contract verbs: fog(e)an ( < * fijan ), to hate; frog(e)an ( < * frijan, to love,

lxxii
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.


to free; scg(e)an (<*schjan) , to shoe; twog(e)an (<*twehjan) , to doubt; ðrag(e)an , to rebuke; *tog(e)an (pret. tode), to arrange; and apparently bg(e)an (3 sg. bð), to boast.

THE THIRD CLASS OF WEAK VERBS. (S. §§ 415, 416.)

102. Weak verbs of the Third Class, of which the original class-suffix was -ai (94), are few in number, and these retain only in part the features of the original conjugation.

CONJUGATION OF THE THIRD CLASS OF WEAK VERBS.

103. Themes: habban, to have; libban, to live; scg(e)an, to say.
PRESENT.
INDICATIVE.
Sing. 1. hæbbe libbe, lifge
2. hafast, hæfst liofast (14), lifast
3. hafað, hæfð liofað, lifað
Plur. 1-3. habbað, hæbbað libbað, lif(i)g(e)að, lifiað

Optative.
Sing. 1-3. hæbbe libbe, lifi(g)e
Plur. 1-3. hæbben libben, lifi(g)en

Imperative.
Sing. 2. hafa liofa
Plur. 2 habbað libbað, lif(i)g(e)að
Infinative. habban libbað, libbað, lif(i)g(e)an, lifian,
liofan
Gerund. habbanne, (-enne, -onne) libbanne, lif(i)(g)enne
Pres. Part. hæbbende libbende, lif(i)(g)ende


INFLECTION: CONJUGATION.
lxxiii


PRETERIT.
Indicative.
Sing. 1. hæfde lifde, liofode
2. hæfdest lifdest, liofodest
3. hæfde lifde, liofode
Plur. 1-3. hædon lifdon, liofdon
Optative.
Sing. 1-3 hæfde lifde, liofode
Plur. 1-3. hæfden lifden, liofoden
Past. Part. (ge)hæfd (ge)lifd, (ge)liofod

Note. - Habban with the negative adverb ne prefixed becomes næbban.

PRESENT.
Indicative.
Sing. 1. scge sægde, sde (16)
2. sagast, sægst, sgst sægdest, sdest
3. sagað, sæg(e)ð, sg(e)ð sægde, sde
Plur. 1-3. scg(e)að sægdon, sdon

Optative.
Sing. 1-3. scge sægde, sde
Plur. 1-3. scgen sægden, sden

Imperative.
Sing. 2. saga, sge
Plur. 2. scg(e)að
Infinative. scg(e)an
Past. Part. (ge)sægd, (ge)sd
Gerund scg(e)anne, (-onne, scgenne)
Pres. Part. scgende


104. Traces of this conjugation are left in fylg(e)an, to follow, pret. fylgde, and hycg(e)an, to think, pret. hogde; but these verbs have besides conformed completely to the Second Conjugation: folgian, folgode; hogian, hogode.

lxxiv
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.


PRETERITIVE PRESENT VERBS. (S. §§ 417-425.)

105. (1) There are some verbs which, in all the Germanic languages, employ in the present exclusively (Indicative and Optative) forms of original ablaut preterits (the original presents being lost). Accordingly they are called preteretive present verbs.
the other parts of the system of present forms, namely, the Imperative, the Infinitive, the Gerund, and the Present Participle, are based upon the indicative plural of these preteritive presents. Upon the basis of the same form of the radical syllable, the conjugation of the tenses is made complete by weak preterits in d (t); whereas the Past Participles (so far as they occur( are in -en, as with strong verbs.
(2) These verbs are special in retaining some features of the more primitive conjugation of ablaut verbs: (a) the 2. sg. of the preteritive present is in t or st, without change of the radical syllable (cf. 93. Note); (b) there is a partial survival of the umlauted optative; dyge, duge; ðyrfe, ðurfe. On the other hand, the influence of the regular conjugation has occasioned such forms as pl. (ge)munað; 2 pl. imperative witað.

106. The preteritive present verbs are classified in accordance with their relation to the ablaut verbs:
(1) Class I. - (a) Infinitive, witan (wietan; wiotan, weotan; 14), to know.

PRESENT. PRETERIT.
Indicative sg. 1. wt wi(e)ste, wisse
2. wst
3. wt wi(e)ste, wisse
pl. 1-3 wi(e)tonm wioton (14) wi(e)ston, wiston


INFLECTION: CONJUGATION.
lxxv


PRESENT. PRETERIT.
Optative sg. wi(e)te; pl. -en wi(e)ste,wisse; pl. -en
Imperative sg. 2 wite Past. Part. (ge)wi(e)ten
pl. 2. witað
Gerund. wi(e)tanne, wiotonne. (-enne,etc.)
Pres. Part. witende


Note 1. - nytan (< ne + witan), not to know, pres. indic. sg. nt, nst, nt, pl. nyton, has uniformly y for i (ie, io, eo), in the radical syllable.

(b) Infinitive, gan, to possess.

Pres. Part., gende.
Indicative., pres., sg. 1.3. h (g), 2. hst; pl. gon.
Optative, pres., ge, etc. Imperative,ge.
Preterit, hte, etc. Past. Part., adj.,gen, gen, own


Note 2. - In the present the radical vowel of the singular has been transferred to the plural (gon for *igon), hence the uniformity of the radical vowel (infinitive gen, pret. hte, etc.). The negative theme is ngan (< ne + gan), not to possess.

(2) Class II. - Infinitive, dugan, to avail.

Pres. Part., dugende.
Indicative, pres., sg. 1. 3. dah, (dag); pl. dugon.
Optative, pres., dyge (105, 2), duge, etc.
Preterit, dohte, etc.


(3) Class III. - (a) Infinitive, unnan, to grant.

Pres. part., unnend.
Indicative, pres. sg. 1. 3. n(n), an(n); pl. unnon.
Optative, pres., unne, etc. Imperative, unne.
Preterit, ðe, etc. Past. Part., (ge)unnen.


lxxvi
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.


(b) Infinitive, cunnan ,to know, can.
Indicative, pres., sg. 1. 3. cn(n), can(n), 2. cnst; pl. cunnon.
Optative, pres., cunne, etc.
Preterit, cð, etc. Past. Part., (ge)cunnen; adj., cð, known.

(c) Infinitive, ðurfan, to need.
Pres. Part., ðearfende.
Indicative, Pres., sg. 1. 3. ðearf, 2. ðearft; pl. ðurfon.
Optative, pres., ðyrfe (105, 2), ðurfe, etc.
Preterit, ðorfe, etc.

(d) Infinitive, durran, to dare.
Indicative, pres. sg. 1. 3. dear(r), 2. dearst; pl. durron.
Optative, pres., dyrre (105, 2), durre, etc.
Preterit, dorste, etc.

(4) CLASS IV. - (a) Infinitive, sculon, sceolan, shall
Indicative, pres. sg. 1. 3. sceal, 2. scealt; pl. sculon, sceolon.
Optative, pres., scyle,sci(e)le (105, 2), scule, sceole, etc.
Preterit, sceolde, scolde etc.

(b)Infinitive, munan, to be mindful of.
Pres. Part., munende.
Indicative, pres. sg. 1. 3. mn, man, 2. mnst; pl. munon, munað.
Optative, pres., myne (105, 2) mune, etc.
Imperative, myn(e), mun(e); pl. munað.
Preterit, munde, etc.

Class V. - (a) Infinitive, magan, may, to be able.
Indicative, pres. sg. 1. 3. mæg, 2. meaht, miht; pl. magon, mægon.
Optative, pres., mæg, mage, etc.
Preterit, meahte (mæhte, mehte), mihte, etc.

Note 3. - The preteritive present sg. mæ, pl. magon, belonged, in it's primitive form, *m, *magumé, to Class VI. In this instance

INFLECTION: CONJUGATION.
lxxvii


the radical vowel of the plural was extended to the singular; association with cann may also have favored the transformation of *mg
(b) Infinitive, (ge-, be-)nugan, to suffice.
Indicative, pres., sg. 3. neah (impersonal); pl. nugon.
Optative, pres., nuge, etc.
Preterit, nohte, etc.
(6) Class VI. - Infinitive, mtan, may.
Indicative, pres., sg. 1. 3. mt, 2. mst; pl. mton.
Optative, pres., mte, etc.
Preterit, mste, etc.

CONJUGATION OF SPECIAL VERBS. (S. §§ 426-430.)

107. Themes: (1) Bon (wesan), to be; (2) willan, to will; (3) dn, to do; (4) gn, to go.
(1)
PRESENT.
 PRETERIT.
Indicative.
Sing. 1 eom
 bom (bom) wæs
2. eart
 bist
 wre
3. is bið
 wæs
Plur. 1-3. sind, si(e)nt
si(e)ndon, -un
siondon, -un
 boð (boð)
 wron
Optative.
Sing. 1-3. se (s, sig, s), so (so) bo (bo)
 wre
Plur. 1-3. sen (sn, sn) bon (bon) wren
Imperative. 2. sg. bo, wes; 2 pl. boð, wesað
Infinitive. bon (bon), wesan
Gerund. bonne (bonne)
Pres. Part. bonde, wesende


lxxviii
AN OUTLINE OF ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.


Note 2. - Some of te special features of the substantive verbs are: (a) the employment of different radicals,; (b) traces of non-thematic conjugation, such as m for the ending of the 1 sg. pres. indic. (eom, bom); (c) the ending -on (-un) of the pres. indic. pl. (sindon, etc. ), which is due to the influence of the preteritive presents.
(2)  PRESENT. PRETERIT.
Indicative.
Sing. 1. wille (wielle), wile wolde
2. wilt woldest
3. wille (wielle), wile woldon
Plur. 1-3. willað (wiellað) woldon

Optative.
Sing. 1-3. wille (wielle), wile wolde
Plur. 1-3. willen (wiellen) wolden
Imperative. (only with negative) 2. pl.nyllað, nellað
Infinitive. willan (wiellan)
Pres. Part.. willende (wiellende)


Note 3. - The negative nyllan (< ne + willan), pret. nolde, etc., has usually the vowel y or e in the radical syllable of the present: nylle, nelle, etc.
Note 4. - willan is special in having derived it's Present Indicative from the Optative. The 2. sg. wilt is in conformity with the preteritive presents, and the pl. willað is the result of the influence of the regular conjugation.

(3) PRESENT. PRETERIT.
Indicative.
Sing. 1. d dyde
2. dst dydest
3. dð dyde
Plur. 1-3. dð dydon
Optative.
Sing. 1-3. d dyde
Plur. 1-3. dn dyden
Imperative. 2 sg. d; 2 pl. dð Past. Part. (ge)dn, (ge)dn
Infinitive. dn Gerund. dnne
Pres. Part. dnde (dende)



INFLECTION: CONJUGATION.
lxxix


Note 5. - dn is a non-thematic verb (dialectical 1 sg. pres. indic. dm), and has in the preterit a reduplicated form of the radical.
(4) PRESENT. PRETERIT.
Sing. 1. g ode
2. gst odest
3. gð ode
Plur. 1-3. gð odon

Optative.
Sing. 1-3. g ode
Plur. 1-3. gn oden
Imperative. 2 sg. g; 2 pl. gð Past. Part. (ge)gn
Infinitive. gn
Gerund. gnne
Pres. Part. gnde


Note 6. - The non-thematic verb gn has a special feature in the preterit ode, which in use is also associated with the present gngan (90 Note 3).